A Guide to English Grammar

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A guide to english grammar.

句子的形成

  1. S+V

任何一个句子一定由主语又subject，简写成S）及动词（verb简写成V）形成。

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约翰工作很努力
John works hard.

他钢琴弹得很好
He plays the piano well.

玛丽似乎喜欢学英文
Mary seems to like learn English.
Mary seems to be fond of learning English.
  1. 祈使句：

有时主语可以省略，而形成祈使句。这种祈使句句首为原形动词，之前省略了You should（你应当）。

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努力工作
Work hard.
=(You should) work hard.

安静
Be quiet.
=You should be quiet.

别游手好闲
Don't fool around.

别傻了
Don't be silly.

可作主语的词类

名词

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这孩子喜欢说谎
The child is apt to tell lies.

黄金很值钱
Gold is of much value.

代词

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他总是信守承诺
He always keeps his promise.

爬山蛮好玩的
It's a lot of fun to climb mountains.

动名词或不定式短语

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看到他就令我生气
Seeing him makes me angry.

我来这儿是为了看他
I come here to see him.
To see him is my purpose of coming here.
  1. 动名词作主语，通常用以表示已知的事实或曾经做过的经历
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集邮是他的爱好之一
 Collecting stamps is one of his hobbies.
=It's one of his hobbies (to collect stamps真正主语).

听音乐使我快乐
 Listening to music makes me happy.
=It makes me happy to listen to music.

 It's interesting learning English.(可)
=It's interesting to learn English.(佳)
  1. 不定式作主语通常表示一种意愿、目的或未完成的事
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出国念书是我最大的愿望。
 To study abroad is my greatest desire.
=It's my greatest desire to study abroad.

到日本游玩是我今年的计划
 To go to Janpan for a visit is my plan for this year.
=It's my plan for this year to visit Japan.

覆水难收
It no use crying over spilt milk.
向他求救是没有用的
It no use asking him for help.

名词性从句作主语

可作主语、宾语或在be动词之后作表语。名词性从句的种类:

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名词性从句包括宾语从句、主语从句、表语从句、同位语从句。名词性从句一共有三种:
l ) that从句
2 ) whether从句
3）疑问词所引导的从句
that从句
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任何一个主语起首的句子：

他不读书令我生气
he doesn't study makes me angry.
-> That he doesn't study makes me angry.
他不相信我说的话
That he doesn't believe my words.
有很多工作要做
That there is lot of work to do.
whether从句
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可用yes/no回答的问句变化而成：

a）问句有be动词时：
他是否快乐
Is he happy? 
-> whether he is happy

b）问句有一般助动词（Can、will、may、should、ought to、must、have）时，主语与助动词还原，前面冠以whether：

他是否能做这件事
Can he do it? 
-> whether he can do it.

他是否已做好此事
Has he done it?
-> Whether he has done it.

c）问句有do、does、did等助动词时主语与助动词还原，再将do、does、did去掉，后面的动词依人称和时态变化:

他是否来了
Did he come? 
-> whether he came.

他是否喜欢它
Does he like it? 
-> whether he likes it.
疑问词所引导的从句

本从句系由疑问词（when、what、how、where、why）等引导的问句变化而成，这种由疑问词引导的问句称为特殊疑问句。

  1. 问句有be动词时：
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主语与be动词还原，前面保留疑问词。

他正在做什么
What is he doing? 
-> what he is doing.
  1. 问句有一般助动词时：
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主语与助动词还原，前面保留疑问词。

他在哪里能找到它
Where can he find it? 
-> where he can find it.
  1. 问句有do、does、did等助动词时：
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主语与助动词还原前面保留疑问词，再将do、does、did去掉，动词依人称和时态变化。

他写什么
What did he write? 
-> what he wrote.

他何时来
When did he come? 
-> when he came.

他怎么做这件事
How does he do it? 
-> how he does it.

who/what/which为疑问代词，若在问句中作主语，变成名词性从句时结构不变:

谁来这儿
Who came here? 
-> who came here.

昨晚发生什么事
What happended last night? 
-> what happended last night.

哪个被买走
Which was bought? 
-> which was bought.

名词性从句的功能:

  1. 名词性从句作主语：
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“诚实为上策”是一句我们应时刻谨记在心的蔑言
That honesty is the best policy is a proverb (which) we should always keep in mind.
=It's a proverb we should always keep in mind that honesty is the best policy.

他住哪里仍不确定
 Where he lives is still in doubt.
=It's still in doubt where he lives.

他能胜任与否仍有待观察
 Whether he can do it remains to be seen.
=It remains to be seen whether he can do it.
  1. 名词性从句作及物动词的宾语：

及物动词在英文中称作transitive veth，简写为vt.；宾语则称作object，简写为o．

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我知道他最近即将出国
I know that he will go abroad in the near future.

我想知道他是否已做完这份工作
I wonder whether he has finished the work.

我不知道他将如何处理这件事
I don't know how he'll handle it.
  1. 作介词的宾语：

介词在英文中称作preposition，简写成prep.

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a）此时仅能用whether从句或疑问词引导的名词性从句作宾语· that从句不可作介词的宾语。
我很担心他是否能做这件事
I am worried about whether he can do it.

我很好奇他将如何应付这问题
I am curious about how he'll cope with the problem.

b）遇有介词，且非要使用that从句时其补救方法如下：

(1) 介词+the fact+that从句:
建议使用:
我确定这一队赢了这场比赛
I am sure of that the team has won the game.(x)
I am sure of the fact that the team has won the game.(the fact that).

我担心他不念书
I am worry about that he doesn't study.(x)
I am worry about the fact that he doesn't study.

(2) 保留介词，不加the fact但介词之后的that从句要做下列变化:
第一步：除去that;
第二步：that后的主语变成所有格；
第三步：动词变成动名词。
不常用:
I am worried about that he plays around all day.(x)
I am worried about the fact that he plays around all day.
I am worried about his(or him) playing around all day.

(a) that从句若有助动词do、does、did时，予以去掉即可。
I am worried about that he doens't study.(x)
I am worried about his not study.

(b) that从句若有助动词will或would时，予以去掉即可。
我确信这一队会赢得这场比赛。
I am sure of that the team will win the game.(x)
I am sure of the team's winning the game.

(c) 从句若有以下助动词时，做下列变化：
may -> be likely to
can -> be able to
我很高兴他可能会来。
I am happy about that he may come.(x)
I am happy about his being likely to come.
我确定他能做这件事。
I am sure of that he can do it.(x)
I am surce of his being able to do it.

(3) be + adj. + that从句：
也就是去掉介词，将that从句放在形容词后面，作其宾语。
建议使用
I am worried about that he plays around all day.(x)
I am worried that he plays around all day.

有时介词之后亦可直接接that从句而不需the fact，形成惯用语，亦应牢记。
in that=because    因为
他很有才华，因为他能说五种语言。
He is talented in that he can speak five different languages.

except that    只可惜、除了
他人很不错，只可惜有时会说谎。
He is nice except that sometimes he tell lies.

=despite the fact that    尽管
=in spite of the fact that
尽管他人好，我却不喜欢他。
Despite the fact that he is nice, I don't like him.
名词短语作主语

名词短语系由“疑问词＋不定式短语”形成。

  1. 疑问副词
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where to live           住哪里
whether to try again    是否再试一次
when to talk to him     什么时候和他谈
how to do it            如何做那事
  1. 疑问代词
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what to do      做什么
whom to See     看谁
whlch to buy    买哪一个
whom to talk to 与谁谈
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在哪里见他还未决定。
 Where we should meet him is not decided yet.
=Where to meet him is not decided yet.

我们如何处理这问题要视我们能募集到多少钱而定。
How we can handle the problem depends on how much money we can collect.
How to handle the problem depends on how much money we can collect.
表距离的地方副词短语作主语

from+地方名词+to+地方名词:
此为表距离的地方副词短语，亦可作主语，与单数的be动词连用。

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 From A to B is about 1000 km.
=It's about 1000 km from A to B.

从上海到北京大约1000公里
From Shanghai to Beijing about 1000 kilometers.
It's about 1000 kilometers From Shanghai to Beijing.

动词的种类及其用法

动词（verb）基本上可分为五大类

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a．完全不及物动词：
(complete Intransitive veth，简写：c.vi.)
b．不完全不及物动词：
(incomplete Intransitive veth，简写：i.vi.)
c．完全及物动词：
(complete transitive verb，简写：c.vt.)
d．不完全及物动词；
(incomplete tra力sitive verb，简写：i.vt.)
e．授与动词：
(dative verb简写：d.v.)

如何判断完全不及物动词

是否及物动词的判断, 以下翻译成中文若无毛病，就是及物动词，否则就是不及物动词，准确率高达99%：

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我___他(主动)
他被我__(被动)

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He wrote the book.
The book was written by him.
Something happened.

be动词

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1）名词：
他是大英雄
He is a great hero.

2）名词性从句：
我的麻烦是缺钱。
My trouble is that I lack money.
问题是他是否能加人我们。
The problem is whether he can join us.

3）名词短语：
问题是何时出发
The question is when to set out.

4）作名词用的动名词短语：
我的兴趣是集邮
My hobby is collecting stamps.

5）作名词用的不定式短语：
我来这里的目的是要见他。
My purpose here is to see him.

6）形容词：
她很美。
She is beautiful.

7）作形容词用的现在分词：
这故事真有趣。
The story is interesting.

8）作形容词用的过去分词：
我对这故事感兴趣。
I am interested in the story.

9）作形容词用的介词短语：
此类介词短语由“ of＋抽象名词”形成。
这本书很有价值。
 The book is of great value.
=The book is valuable.
那部机器毫无用处。
 The machine is of no use.
=The machine is useless.

10）地方副词：
她在那儿。
She is there.
他们在楼上。
They are upstairs.
他现在在家吗？
Is he home now?

11）地方副词短语：
她人在城里。
She is in town.
他们现在在家。
They are at home now.
她有危险。
She is in danger.

be动词之后的现在分词有两种词性：

一作形容词，一作动词进行时的现在分词。换言之，同学遇到v一ing；可译成”⋯的”时，就是作形容词的现在分词，否则就是表“进行状态”的现在分词，要译成“正在⋯”，而不视为形容词。

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这女孩很迷人
The girl is charming.
这女孩在唱歌。
The girl is singing.

be动词之后的过去分词亦有两个词性：

一作形容词用，可译成“感到⋯的”；一作及物动词的被动语态，译成“被而不视为形容词。

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这个人很累
The man is tired.
这男的被杀了
The man was killed.

become

become可用任何名词、形容词或可作形容词用的现在分词或过去分词（即可以译成“ ⋯ ⋯的”之类的分词）作表语。

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他生气了。
He become angry.
如果你用功，就可成为好学生。
If you study hard, you will become a good student.
她愈来愈迷人。
She is becoming more and more charming.
失败后，他变得意志消沉。
After failing, he became depressed.

turn

turn通常只用形容词作表语，而且所能使用的形容词多与颜色或情绪有关。

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听到那消息时，他脸色变得苍白起来。
His face turns pale when he heard the news.
树叶变黄了。
The leaves were turning yellow.
看到玛丽时，他气得脸都红了。
His face turned red with angry when he saw Mary.
她变漂亮了
She become beautiful.

get

get通常用表“生气”或“激动”的形容词作表语。若用其他形容词时，宜用become 。

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他生气了。
He got mad.
她愈来愈美丽。
She is getting more and more beautiful.
事情愈来愈顺利。
Things are getting better and better.
她变漂亮了
She become beautiful.

get+p.p（被动语态）
=be+p.p（被动语态）
他在车祸中丧生
 He got killed in the accident.
=He was killed in the accident.
你如果不小心点，就会受伤。
If you are not careful, you will get hurt.

seem

=appear，之后用不定式作表语。

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他似乎知道此事。
He seems to know it.

但在seem to be+名词/形容词结构中，to be可省略，直接用名词或形容词作表语。
他似乎很快乐
He seems to be happy.
=He seems happy.(to be可以省略掉)
他似乎是个好人
He seems a nice man.

感观动词

感官动词一共有五个，一律译成“⋯起来”，之后一律用形容词（或可作形容词用的分词）作表语。

  1. look/sound/smell/taste/feel + adj
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他的主意听起来不错
His idea sounds good.
His idea sounds like a good idea.
这食物闻起来很香
The food smells good.
我现在觉得很疲倦
I feel tired now.
It looks interesting.
它看起来很有趣
It sounds like a good idea.
  1. look/sound/smell/taste/feel + like + noun
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like为介词译成“像”，之后的名词为其宾语。

听起来像是个好主意
It sounds like a good idea.
那质料摸起来像丝
The material fells like silk.
这食物尝起来像鱼肉
The food tastes like fish.
  1. feel like + noun: 感觉像
    feel like + 动名词: 想要
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当简说她要嫁给我时，我觉得我就像个新生儿一样。
When Jane said she would marry me, I feel like a newborn baby
我今天想散散步
I feel like taking a walk today.
I would like to take a walk today.
  1. feel、taste、smell亦可当完全及物动词，可用名词作宾语。
    此时feel、taste、smell的意思均有改变。
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feel/taste/smell + noun.

医生摸我的额头说我发烧了
The doctor feel my forehead and said I had a fever.
别尝那食物，它已经馒了
Don't taste the food, it has spoiled.
他闻到有东西烧焦了
He smells something burning.
  1. like与介词连用时，可形成短语动词，视为及物动词。
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look into = investigate    调查
look over = examine        检查
look at = watch            看

他愉快地看着我
He looked me happily.
He looked happily at me.
他仔细地调查这件案子
He looked into the case carefully.
He looked carefully into the case.

不完全不及物动词的重要相关短语

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fell ill(fall ill)
约翰病了，因此今天无法上学
John fell ill and couldn't attendd school today.
fell asleep(fall asleep)
他很快就睡着了。
He soon fell asleep.
我不知道他怎么会变得如此受人欢迎。
I don't kown how he became to be so popular.

完全及物动词的用法

完全及物动词的宾语，计有名词、代词、不定式、动名词、名词性从句及名词短语等。同学稍加注意，就可发现这些词类、短语或从句均有名词的特性，故亦可用作主语。

  1. 名词当及物动词的宾语
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他没有买那部车
He didn't buy that car.
  1. 代词当及物动词的宾语
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我不喜欢约翰。事实上，我讨厌他
I don't like John. In fact, I hate him.
  1. 不定式当及物动词的宾语

这些动词皆有表示某种愿望、企图之意，常用的此类动词如：want（想要）、hope（希望）、 desire（想要）等。

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我现在就要见他
I want to see him now.
我希望有一天能出国留学
I hope to study abroad someday.
  1. 动名词当及物动词的宾语

并非所有及物动词均可用动名词作宾语。常以动名词作宾语的动词有下列几个：

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considered/imagined/fancy/risked/avoided/escaped/suggested/
recommended/enjoy/resent/practiced/stopped/quit/mind

他考虑出国念书
He considered studying abroad.
我曾想像和他去约会
I once imagined going on a date with him.
他冒险做这事
He risked dong it.
他建议去国外旅行
He recommended traveling abroad.
我喜欢跳舞
I enjoying dancing.
我讨厌要做这么多工作
I resent having to do so much work.
我练过钢琴了
I practiced playing the piano.
他戒烟了
He stopped/quit smoking.
你介意为我打开窗户吗？
Would you mind opening the window for me?

resist V一ing    抗拒...
refuse to V     拒绝...
我拒绝做此事
I refused to do it.
I resist doing it.
我忍不住要再吃些冰淇淋
I couldn't resist having some more ice cream.

expect to V    期望
=anticipate V一ing
我期望和他一起环游世界
I expect to travel around the world with him.
I anticipate traveling around the world with him.

stop V一ing    停止
=quit V一ing
他结婚后就不再写作了
He stopped writing after he got married.
他决定戒烟
He decided to quit smoking.

stop to V    停下来而去...
他看见我时，便停下来和我说话
He stop to talk to me when he saw me.

continue（继续）、start（开始）、bogin（开始）、like（喜欢）
love（爱）、hate（恨），可用不定式或动名词作宾语意思不变:
他继续在赌场里试他的手气。
He continued trying(/to try) his luck at the casino.
他们开始建这栋房子
They start building(/to build) the house.

名词性从句作及物动词的宾语

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名词性从句有三种：
1) that引导的名词性从句
that he can't do it   （他不能做此事）
2) whether引导的名词性从句
whether he will come  （他是否会来）
3) 疑问词引导的名同性从句
when he will do it    （他何时做）
what he is doing      （他正在做什么）
how he'll handle it   （他如何处理此事）

为了方便记忆起见，我们可将名词性从句记成“戴慧怡” 。
戴：即that之讹音
慧：即whether第一音节之讹音
怡：即疑问词从句“疑”之同音词

由于名词性从句具有名词的功能，故亦可作及物动词的宾语。

我相信他是个言而有信的人
He believ that he is a man of his word.
我不知道他是否能够做此事
I don't know whether he can do it.
我不知道他住哪里
I don't know where he lives.

that从句作及物动词的宾语时，名词性从句连接词that通常予以省略。
他们觉得不可能赢这场比赛
They feel (that) it's impossible to win the game.
他认为这本书值得一读
He think (that) the book is worth reading.

whether从句作及物动词的宾语时，名词性从句连接词whether亦可被if取代。
我不知道台风是否会来。
I don't know whether the typhoon will come
=I don't know if the typhoon will come.
我不知道这个人是否有足够的能力处理此事。
I don't know if the man has enough ability to handle the it.
I doubt if the man is competent enough to handle it.

但whether从句若作主语、介词的宾语或者be动词后的表语时，不能用if:

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a. whether从句作主语：
他是否能去还不知道。
Whether he can go is not yet know.
b. whether从句作介词的宾语：
他很担心是否能通过这次考试。
He is worried about whether he can pass the exam.
c. whether从句作be动词后的表语：
The problem is whether he has enough money for the trip.

名词短语

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我知道如何处理这问题。
I know how to handle the problem.
我不知道该向谁说。
I don't know whom to talk to.

不完全及物动词

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本句意思不完全，故需补语。
他使玛丽快乐。
He made me happy.

使役动词

  1. 叫

make/have + 宾语 + 原形动词

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我叫他洗车
I made him wash the car.
I had him wash the car.
I got him to wash the car.
我叫约翰向我报到。
I had John report to me.

get亦可表“叫⋯ ”之意，但只能用不定式短语作宾语补语，句型如下：
get sb to V    叫某人从事⋯

我叫他洗车。
I got him wash the car.

make可使用于被动语态中但have及get则不可。

主动语态：

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I made(had) him wash the car.
I got him to wash the car.

被动语态:

变被动语态时，原形动词wash就要变成不定式短语to wash，而成to wash the car。
have、get无被动用法。

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他被要求洗车
He was made to wash the car.

  1. 让
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a. let＋宾语＋原形动词（作宾语补语）
我让他洗车
I let him wash the car.
我让彼得试试看
I let Peter try it.

b. let＋宾语＋作副词用的介词（in、out、down)
他让我进来
He let me in.
别让他出去
Don't let him out.
他的表演令我失望
His performance let me down.

上述介词由于其后无宾语，可单独存在作副词用，因此称为介副词。与
地方副词（如there 、 here 、 home）一样，介副词可作be动词之后的
表语:
他在家
He is in
He is out
He is there.
He is here.
He is home.
He is downtown.
He is in the house.
  1. 强迫/要求/怂恿/催促

此类动词＋宾语＋不定式短语（作宾语补语）
force/ask/encourage/tell+不定式

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我强迫他背这课
I forced him to recite the lesson.
我要求他写这封信
I asked him to write the lettle.
我鼓励他更努力些
I encouraged him to work harder.
他强迫我做违反意愿的事
He forced me to do it against my will.
他叫我10点钟以前做完这件工作
He told me to finish the work by 10.

此类动词尚有许多个，兹将常出现的此类动词列举如下：
push one to...    （催促某人去⋯ ⋯）
expect one to...  （期望某人去⋯ ⋯）
want one to...    （要某人去⋯ ⋯）
  1. 使…成为

此类动词只有make一个，加了宾语之后，要用形容词或名词作补语:

主语+make+宾语+形容词(或名词)（作宾语补语）

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他的老师使他成为好学生
His teacher made him a good student.
这次旅行使他很愉快
The trip made him happy.

知觉动词

此类动词有三类：
看：see、observe（观察）、watch（看）、lookat（注视）、notice（注意）
听：hear、listen to
感觉：feel

  1. 此类动词可作完全及物动词，加了宾语之后无须另加补语
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你看见他没有
Did you see him?
他正在听音乐
he was listening music.
我觉得背痛
I felt a pain in my back.
  1. 但此类动词亦可作不完全及物动词，加了宾语之后，须另加宾语补语。用法如下：
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a. 表事实时，用原形动词作补语，译成“...了”
我看见他跳舞了
I saw him dance.
我听见他唱歌了
I heard him sing.
我感觉到他动了
I felt him move.

b. 表进行状态时，用现在分词作补语，译成“...正在...”
我进来时，看见他正在跳舞
I saw him dancing when I walked in.
我推开门时，听见他正在唱歌
I heard him singing when I pushed the door open.
As I pushed the door open, I heard him singing.
门铃响时，我感觉到我的双腿正在发抖。
When the doorbell rang, I felt my legs trembling.

c. 表被动状态时，要用过去分词作补语，译成"...被..."
我看见他被杀死了
I saw him killed.
我听见门被关起来了
I heard the door closed.
我感觉到自己被举起来了
I felt myself lifted.

认定动词

此类动词均表“视⋯为”之意，加了宾语之后，用名词或形容词作宾语补语。

  1. 与介词连用者：

视…为：与as或for连用：

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我们都把他视为天才
We regard(look upon/think of/see/view) him as a genius.
我误将那长发的男孩视作女孩
I mistook the long一haired boy for a girl.
  1. 与to be连用者：
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我们认为他是天才／人很好。
We consider/deem/think him to be a genius.
We consider/deem/think him a genius.
We consider/deem/think him to be nice.
We consider/deem/think him nice.

a. 一般介词之后只能用名词、代词或动名词作宾语

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我很讨厌他粗鲁的态度
I am sick of his rude attitude.
我讨厌与他为伍
I am sick of associating with him.

但表“视...为”的动词与as或for连用时，它们之后除可接名词外，亦可直接接形容词作补语。
我认为他的行为不当
I regard his behavior as inappropriate.

b. think、believe、find、deem、consider等五个动词作不完全及物动词时，
不得直接用不定式短语作宾语，一定要用形式宾语it取代。
此时think译成”认为⋯是⋯”、 deem译成“认为…是…”、consider译成“认为…是…” 

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主语+think(believe/find/deem/consider)+it+宾语补语(n. or adj.)+to V.
我认为爬山是很有趣的―我认为爬山很有趣。
I think it fun to climb the mountains.
我发觉做这件事是有必要的―我发觉做这事有必要
I find it necesssary to do the work.
我相信用功是值得的―我相信用功很值得。
I believe it worthwhile to study hard.

但find、believe、think、deem、consider也可作完全及物动词
此时要用that引导的名词性从句作宾语。此时find、believe、thlnk、
deem、consider分别译成“发现、相信、认为，认为、认为” 。
我认为爬山很有趣
I think that it's interesting to climb the mountains.
我相信用功是值得的
I believee that it's worthwhile to study hard.

c. make表“使…成为…”时，亦为不完全及物动词，其后不得用不定式短语作宾语，一定要用式宾语it取代。

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努力工作使他有可能赢得此荣誉
Hard work made it possible for him to win the honor.

d. find、believe、think、deem、consider乍不完全及物动词时，
亦不得直接用that引导的名词性从句作宾语一定要用形式宾语it取代。

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我发觉他歌唱得这么好真是太棒了
I find it wonderful that he sings so well.
我相信他努力用功是有必要的
I believe it necessary that he should work hard.

转变动词

此类动词均表”使⋯变成⋯”之意常用的有change与加rn两个。通常要与介词into连用。

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这个经验使他变成好学生了。
The experience turned/changed him into a good student.

其他重要的不完全及物动词

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我将门漆成绿色
1 painted the door green.
他们给小宝宝取名为汤姆
They named the baby Tom.
别让门敞开着
Don't leave the door open.
你一定要让你的牙齿保持干净
You must keep your teeth clean.

授予动词

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我要送你这只表
I'll give you this watch.
请把你的书借我
Please lend me your book.

  1. 表“给予”的概念要用to：

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    我给他这本书
    I gave him the book.
    =I gave the book to him.

  2. 表“代劳”的概念要用for：

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    我为他买了这本书
    I bought him the book.
    =I bought the book for him.

  3. 表“从⋯中”的概念，要用of：

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    我问他一个问题
    I asked him a question.
    =I asked a question of him.
    我对他不抱很大的期望
    I didn't except much of him.
    他对我毫无所求
    He required nothing of me.
    他抢了我的钱
    He robbed me of my money.
    我的钱被抢了
    I was robbed of my money.
    我无法摆脱这段痛苦的回忆
    I cannot get rid of the painful memory.
    你应该戒除抽烟的恶习
    You should (get rid of|break yourself|rid yourself) the bad habit of smoking.
    医生治好了他的病
    The doctor cured him of his disease.

  4. 表提供：offer/provide/supply/furnish/present, 除offer外，要与with连用:

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    他提供我所需要的东西
    He offered me all I needed.
    =He provided me with all I needed.
    他送我一块表
    He presented me with a watch.
    =He presented a watch to me.

  5. explan/introduce/propose/recommend/express要与to连用:

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    他向我解释理由
    He explained the reson to me.
    他把那位女孩介绍给我
    He introduced the girl to me.
    他建议我用这个方法
    He recommended the method to me.
    他向委员会提了一个提议
    He proposed a motion to the committee.

  6. take a picture

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    #我拍了一张他的照片
    I took a picture of him.
    #我为他拍了一张照片
    I took a picture for him.

其他

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Never try it.
=Don't ever try it.

#How之后只能与单数名词, what没有限制. 只记how+adj，what+noun就可以
What a great man he is!
=How great he is!=How great a man he is!
How hard he studied!

两句的连接方式

两句可能用以下的符号连接：

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1. 破折号 
2. 冒号 
3. 分号 
4. 并列连词 
5. 副词连词 
6. 关系词

并列连词

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and -> both...and..            一方面...同时也...
or  -> either...or...          要不就是...要不就是...
       neither...nor...        既非...亦非...
but -> not...but...            并非...而是...
       not only...but also...  不仅...而且...
as well as...                  以及
rather than...                 而非
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他非但不仁慈，反而很残忍
He is not kind but cruel.
他不是走就是留
He will either stay or leave.
她不仅会唱歌，她也会跳舞
Not only can she sing, but she can (also) dance.
我们和约翰都喜欢它
We as well as John like it.
他很快乐，而不是伤心
He is happy rather than sad.

#as well as或rather than连接主语时，动词始终随第一个主语做变化
他对音乐有兴趣，而非对绘画有兴趣
He is interested in music rather than in painting.
他来此地学英文并了解更多有关生活的事情
He came here to learn English as well as to know more about life.
他和我都对音乐有兴趣
He as well as I is interested in music.
他对音乐有兴趣，而我则不
He rather than I is interested in music.
=He instead of me is interested in music.
=He,not I, is interested in music.

我喜欢这本书，而不喜欢那本
I like this book, not that one.
=I like this book rather than that one.

#除both用复数外，其它随最近的主语变化：
他与我对此事都高兴
#他和我都...(不可连接句子)
Both he and I are happy about it.

不是他就是我错
#不是他就是我...(不可连接句子)
Either he or I am wrong.

既不是你也不是他该负责
既不是你也不是他...(不可连接句子)
Neither you nor he is to blame.

不是他而是我应对此事负责
#不是他而是我...(不可连接句子)
Not he but I am to be responsible for it.

#不仅...而且...(可连接句子，引导句子时要倒装)
Not only they but(also) John has passed the exam.
Not only can she sing, but she can also dance.
Not only does she sing well, but she dances beatifully.
She is not only beautiful but (also) kind.
=She is not only beautiful bot kind as well.

副词连词

常用的的副词连接词：

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because（因为）
though（虽然）
if（如果）
unless（除非）
as soon as（一旦）
once（一旦）等

  1. 条件句与主句的时态
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when:当                 一般现在时(或现在完成时)动词，主语+will+原形动词。
if:如果 
once/as soon as:一旦 
unless:除非

我有钱时就会买辆车
When I am rich, I will buy a car.
他若有时间就会来
If he has time, he'll come here.
我一做完就会让你知道
As soon as(Once) I have done it, I'll let you know.
我一旦有空就会出国旅行
Once I am free, I will take a trip abroad.
除非他明天回来，否则我就要走了
Unless he comes back tomorrow, I will leave.
他还要两年才毕业
It will be another two years before he graduates.
他还要多久才来？
How long will it be before he comes?
  1. 连接性副词
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however: 然而(有but的意思): 
后面要加逗号，句中两旁用逗号相隔。
他人很好，然而我却不喜欢他
He is nice; however, I don't like him.
He is nice, but I don't like him.
He is nice. However, I don't like him.
He is nice. I, however, don't like him.

therefore/thus：因此(有so的意思): 
后面要加逗号，句中两旁用逗号相隔。(thus不用加逗号)
他很仁慈因此我们全都喜欢他
He is kind; therefore, we all like him.
He is kind, so we all like him.
He is kind. Therefore, we all like him.
He is kind. We, therefore, like him.

moreover/furthermore/in addition：
此外（有and的意思）: 后面要加逗号，句中两旁用逗号相隔。
她舞跳得好，而且也擅长唱歌
She dances well; furthermore, she is good at singing.
She dances well, and she is good at singing.

besides与in addition均表“此外”，不过前者多用于有否定或消极意味的句中，
而in addition则用于肯定句或积极意味的句中。
我想我不会跟你去看电影了，约翰。我太累了；此外，我也没钱。
I don't think I will go to the movies with you, John. I'm too tired; 
besides, I have no money.

while: 
#句首时：当... 
While I was writing a letter, she was doing the sishes.
#连接并列句时：而...
He is nice, while(whereas) his brother is bad.
While he is nice, his brother is bad.

as: 当、虽然、因为

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#当我...
As I was young, I was quite happy.
As rich as he is, he isn't happy.
#虽然...
=Thouth he is rich, he isn't happy.
=Rich as he is, he isn't happy.
#因为...
As he has apologized to me, I'm going to forgive him.
Because he...

where: 在…的地方

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=in the place where.=in the place in which
Where I live, people are very nice.
in the place where I live, people are very nice.
Put the book where I can see it.
=Put the book in the place where I can see it.

once、as soon as: 一旦

or: 否则

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You must work hard, or I'll fire you.
=You must work hard; otherwise I'll fire you.

nor: 也不, nor之后的分句要倒装

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She can't sing, nor can she dance.
He isn't clever, nor is he diligent.

so that: 这样的话、也便, 从句中应有助动词may/wll/can等

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I got up early so that(in order that) I could get to school on time.
=I got up early so I could get to school on time.

so…that…: 如此…以致于…

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He is so nice that we all like him.
=He is so nice, we all like him.

in that: because。置于主句之后

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He is great in that he speaks five different languages.

except that: 只可惜、只不过是

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He is nice except that he is a little shy.

since: 因为、自从

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#由于...
Since you've finished the work, you may leave anytime.
#自从...
He has been studying quite hard since he went to college.

关系词

关系代词

关系代词种类及功能

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人： who/whom
物： which/which
句子:which/which

a. 关系代词之前要有先行词
b. 关系代词在引导的定语从句中要作主语、宾语或表语
c. 否则关系代词之前一定要有介词, 介词可移到句尾
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He is a good student who studies hard.
He is a boy whom everyone loves.
He is a man for whom I enjoy working.
=He is a man whom I enjoy working for.
The house in which we live is very large.
=The house which we live in is very large.

#which代替smokes three packs of cigarettes a day
He smokes three packs of cigarettes a day, which definitely does harm to his health.

非限制性定语从句

该关系代词前一定要有逗号，按顺序翻译即可。

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I met John, who is my classmate.
Here comes my father, who is an English teacher.
I went to the train station this morning, which was crowded with passengers.

限制性定语从句

该关系代词前不要有逗号，翻译成”…的”

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He is a boy who works hard.
I like the book which he bought yesterday.
This is my mother, who loves me very much.(对)
This is my mother who loves me very much.（错）

关系代词的省略

限制性定语从句中，若关系代词为及物动词的宾语，则该关系代词可省略。若关系代词为介词的宾语，介词移到定语从句的句尾时，则该关系代词可省略。

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This is the boy whom I saw yesterday.(vt)
=This is the boy I saw yesterday.

This is a question which you should pay attention to.(prep)
=This is a question you should pay attention to.

This is the house in which he lives.
=This is the house which he lives in.
=This is the house he lives in.

that关系代词

a. that之前不能有逗号

b. that之前不可有介词

以上满足时可取代who、whom、which.

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I like the girl that(who) is sitting there.
This is the knife whth which he killed Marry.(有with，不能用that取代which)
=This is the knife that(which) he killed Marry with.

下列情况下，只能用that

序数词：the first/second…/last

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Gambling is the last thing that I would do.
He was the first man that came up with such an idea.

最高级后，只能用that：

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He is the best student that I've ever taught.
The most beautiful scene that I've everseen is Guilin.

all后，只能用that：

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All the students (that) are studying here are hardworking.
All (that) he said is true.
Everything (that) he said is true.
#以上时，that可以省略掉

the only后，只能用that：

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He is the only friend that I have.

关系代词在be动词后作表语，只能用that：

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#他已不是当年的他了
He is not the man that he once was.

其他：

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Who that lies can win our trust?
What is it that you want?

限制性定语从句可化简为分词适语

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The girl who danced here yesterday is my sister.
=The girl dancing here yesterday is my sister.

Who is that boy that is standing over there?
that is->being->省略
=Who is that boy standing over there?

I like the car which is parked in front of the post office.
which is>being->省略
=I like the car parked in front of the post office.

非限制性定语从句不能化简为分词短语。但Who/which + be + n可以化简为同位语

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I met John, who is a good friend of mine.
who is->being->省略
=I met John, a good friend of mine.

He works hard, which is a fact that is known to all of us.
=He works hard, a fact that is know to all of us.

John, a good friend of mine, came to see me yesterday.
=A good friend of mine, John came to see me yesterday.

定语从句与插入语的关系

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I believ(我相信)
I think/consider(我相信)
I feel(我觉得)
I know(我知道)
I find(我发现)
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#他是个从不食言的人
He is a man who never breaks his word.
He is a man who I think never breaks his word.

He is the man whom I believe I met yesterday.
He is a man who I think never breaks his word.
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I think that he is nice.
=I think him to be nice.

He is a man who I think is nice.
=He is a man whom I think to be nice.

定语从句可简化为不定式短语

关系代词所引导的定语从句中，若该关系代词之前有介词时，可将该从句换成不定式短语。有点“…目的”的意思：

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He has no house in which he can live.
=He has no house in which to live.
=He has no house to live in.

Lend me your pen with which I can write my address.
=Lend me your pen with which to write my address.
=Lend me your pen to write my address with.

关系代词所有格

his/your/their/our/its…变化而成：

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whose

a. 关系代词所有格之前要有先行词
b. 关系代词所有格在引导的定语从句中要作主语、宾语或表语
c. 否则关系代词所有格之前一定要有介词, 介词可移到句尾
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She has an uncle. His name is Peter.
=She has an uncle whose name is Peter.

whose+n.=the+n.+of which=of which+the+n.:

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This is a fancy car, whose color I like very much.
=This is a fancy car, the color of which I like very much.
=This is a fancy car, of which the color I like very much.

关系副词

关系副词用以修饰名词

介词+关系代词+which:

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where=in which/on which/at which: 修饰表地方的名词
when=in which/on which/at which: 修饰表时间的名词
why=for which: 修饰的reason
how=in which: how和the way只能用其中之一

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This is the city where(in which) I met Marry.
He came on Friday, when(on which) it was raining very hard.
I don't know the reason why he cried.
That's how(the way) he handled the thing.

where

在…地方(在…内/上或其他)

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This is the city in which I met Mary.
=This is the city where I met Mary.

Do you see the desk on which there is a book.
=Do you see the desk where there is a book.

when

那时、那天、那年…

年月：in 日子：on 时间：at

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He came on Friday, on which it was raining hard.
=He came on Friday, when it was raining hard.

That's the year when he graduated.
The sun rose at 5:30, when most people were still in their dreams.

why

只作修饰the reason，the reason可以省略掉

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I don't know the reason for which he cried.
=I don't know the reason why he cried.
=I don't know why he cried.

how

how和the way只能用其中之一，表…的方式/方法

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That's the way in which he handled the problem.
=That's the way he handled the problem.

I don't like the way he talks.

I am sick of the way he looks at me.
=I am sick of how he looks at me.

关系副词使用要点

在be动词后作表语时，可省略该名词，只保留关系副词

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That is the place where he was born.
=That's where he was born.
That is the day when he'll come.
=That's when he'll come.
That is the reason why he left.
=That's why he left.
That is the way he did it.
=That's how he did it.

where/when/why/how可视为疑问代词，引导名词从句，此时可作及物动词的宾语

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I konw where he is.
I wonder why he left.
I don't know how he'll do it.

where可作副词

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Put it where you found it.
=Put it in the place where found it.
=Put it in the place in which found it.

Where there is smoke, there is fire.

the moment(when)… 一…就…

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#他一听到这个悲伤的消息就哭了起来
As soon as he heard the sad news, he burst into tears.
#他来的时候，我正在睡觉
The time(when) he came, I was sleeping.
=When he came, I was sleeping.
#他离开的那一天，正在下雨
The day(when) he left, it was rainning.
=When he left, it was rainning.

复合关系代词

复合关系代词种类

由两个词类复合而成：先行词(名词)+关系代词

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#代替人
whoever(凡...的人)、任何...的人
=anybody who
whomever(宾格)
=anybody whom

#代替人或物
whichever(三者以上)
=any one which(/who): 同一类的任何一个...
whichever(二者)
=either which(/who): 同一类的任何一个...

#代替物
what=the thing(s) which: 所...的东西
whatever=anything which: ...的任何东西

whoever

whoever=anybody who

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Anybody should be punished.
who makes such a mistake.

Anybody who makes such a mistake should be punished.
=Whoever makes such a mistake should be punished.

I hate anybody.
who tells lies.

I hate anybody who tells lies.
=I hate whoever tells lies.

whomever

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Give it to anybody.
whom you like.

Give it to anybody whom you like.
Give it to whomever you like.

whichever

是指同一类的任何东西

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There are many book here. You may take any one which you like.
There are many book here. You may take whichever you like.

what

the thing/the things which. 所…的(东西/事/话…):

前面不要有先行词(名词)

可作主语、宾语或在be动词后作表语

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What he said is true.
=The words which he said is true.
I am interested in what he is doing.

What bothers me is that I have no time.
I don't believe what he said.

whatever

与whichever类似，不同在于whatever指不同类的任何东西，whichever指同一类的任何东西

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Whatever he said is true.
=Anything which he said is true.

I am interesting in whatever he is doing.
=I am interesting in anything that he is doing.

whatever及whoever作副词连词

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whatever=no matter what: 不论什么
whoever=no matter who: 不论谁

Whatever he says, I don't believe him.
=No matter what he says, I don't believe him.

Whoever does it, he should finish it by ten.
No matter who does it, he should finish it by ten.

whatever及whoever作副词连词, 引导的状语从句与主句中间有逗号相隔，而复合关系代词时没有。

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#他所说的任何话都是谎言
Whatever he says is a lie.
#不论他说什么，那都是谎言
Whatever(No matter what) he says, it is a lie.

Whoever makes the mistake should be punished.
Whoever(No matter who) makes the mistake, he should be punished.

however

连接性副词: 然而

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He is nice; however, I don't like him.
=He is nice. however, I don't like him.
=He is nice. I, however, don't like him.

副词连词：无论如何

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No matter how nice he is, I don't like him.
=However nice he is, I don't like him.

No matter how hard he works, I don't respect him.
=However hard he works, I don't respect him.

whether

表无论是否只需whether即可，不可使用no matter whether，引导状语从句，以逗号分隔。

引导名词性从句，无逗号相隔，表是否。

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Whether he is rich(or not), Jane will marry him.

#他是否富有都没关系
Whether he is rich(or not) doesn't matter.(无逗号相隔)
=It doesn't matter whether he is rich(or not).

however

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However poor he is, he doesn't wnat anyone to help him.
=However poor he may be, he doesn't want...

准关系代词

that/as/but

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I have more money than you(do).
He has as much money as I(do).
There is nothing but he knows.

that

that + the 前面的动词 + 关系代词(who/whom/which), 可作主语、宾语、be动词后的表语

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#主语
I have more mony than is needed.
than=that the money which，所以that中已经包含了主语，不用再添加主语
More guests that were invited came.
There are more books that are needed.

#宾语
I have more money than he needs.
I have more books than you do.

more...that=比...多

#be词语后的表语
He is a better student than you.

as

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#像...那样的...
such+n.+as...
#主语
I have such car as you.
I don't like such a man as tells lies.
#宾语
I respect such an honest man as you described.
#be动词后的表语
In our company there is not such a man as David(is).
Such a lazy student as John will get nowhere.

#和...相同的...
the same+n.+as...
#主语
I have the same book as is laid on the desk.
as=as the book which
#宾语
I have the same dictionary as you bought yesterday.
#be动词后的表语
I have the same dictionary as this one(is).

#和...一样的...
as+adj.+n.+as...
#主语
#他是有史以来最勤奋的人
He is as diligent a man as ever lived.
as=as any man that
#宾语
#我有一本和你一样好的词典
I have as good a dictionary as you(do).
#be动词后的表语
#他是个和John一样好的人
He is as good a man as John.
as=as the man that
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Such a man like him is bad.(x)
Such a man as he is bad.

the same...as...:   和...相同的...(两个人或物)
the same...that...: 就是同一个...(一个人或物) 

#我有一本书，与他正在看的那一本相同
I have the same book as he is reading.
#我借了一本书，就是他上周借的那一本
I borrowed the same book that the borrowed last week.

as等于which，用以代替整个主句, as可以移到句首，但which不能

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He is nice, which we all know.
=He is nice, as we all know.
=As we all know, he is nice.
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He was drunk, as usual.
His conditions are as follows.
His listed the names as follows.

只能与单数可数名词使用的结构：

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as good a student as...
as diligent a man as...
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#以下都只能用单数
#so...that...: 如此...以致
He is so good a boy that I like him.

#as...as...: 和...一样地...
He is as handsome a man as Peter.
This music is as good as that.

#too...to...: 太...而不...
He is too old a man to do it.
This work is too difficult to do.
THis is too difficult a job to do.

#how...: 多么地...
How great a man he is!
#what可接任何名词
What good students they are!

He has so many things to do that he can't go picnicking with us.
There is so much work to do that I don't think I can go to bed early.
He has too little money left to buy a car.
I have as much money as he.
I don't know how much time you can give me for that job.

such…that可置任何名词

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This is such good music that I love it.
They are such good students that I like them.

but

作准关系代词时，只用于”no+名词”之后，等于who(whom/wich)…not。

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There is no+名词+who(whom/which/that)...not
=There is no+名词+but...

#没有...是不...

#没有人不对它感兴趣
There is no one who is not interested in it.
=There is no one but interested in it.

#没有什么东西是他不喜欢的
There is nothing which he is not found of.
=There is nothing but he is fond of.

There is nothing but he can do.
There is no book but he likes to read.
=There was no noe but he hated.

非谓语动词

不定式、分词、动名词

不定式

不定式的功能

当名词、形容词、副词：

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#名词
To take a trip around the world has been my dream.

#形容词
I have something to do(to do修饰something).

#副词
I came to see her.(to see her当副词修饰came)

名词不定式的用法

当作主语时，可用It is…to V替代:

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It is my goal to marry her.
It is difficult to learn English.

名词不定式作及物动词的宾语：

want/desire/intend/expect+to+V，但anticipate+动名词。

注意：think也有想要的意思，但只用以表示“想到某一件事”，通常用that引导名词性从句作宾语

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I think that he is great.
I thought of Mary a while ago.
I have been thinking of buying a car.
=I have been considering buying a car.

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S + find(发现)   + it + 名词/形容词(作补语) + 名词不定式(真正宾语)
    think(认为)
    believe(相信)
    consider(认为)
    deem(认为)
    feel(觉得)
    make(使)

I find it interesting to climb mountains.
#我习惯早起
I make it a rule to get up early.

在be动词表意愿、企图的名词：

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My plan is to see him.
His goal is simply to become a teacher.

形容词不定式的用法

置于名词的后面，作形容词用，修饰其前面的名词：

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I have some work to do.
There is one thing to be done.

形容词不定式可以等于关系代词作主语所引导的定语从句：

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I have on friend to advise me.
=I have no friend who can advise me.

There is one thing to be done.
=There is one thing which should be done.

#形容词不定式也可等于关系代词作宾语所引导的定语从句：
I want something to eat.
=I want something which I can eat.
I have something to do.
=I have something which I must do.

此类句型中，被修饰的名词一定要作不定式短语中动词的宾语，否则就要作为介词的宾语：

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He is a nice man to work with.
Give me a chair to sit in.

be动词后加的形容词不定式有下列意义：

1). 主动形式：
a). 表将来=will

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He is to come tomorrow.
=He is going to come tomorrow.
=He will come tomorrow.

b). 表义务=should

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You are to do it.
You should do it.

What am I to do?
=What should I do?

2). 被动形式：
a). 表当然=should

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Such a lazy man is to be fired.
=Such a lazy man should be fired.

b). 表可能=can

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My hat was nowhere to be found.
=My hat could not be fould anywhere.

副词不定式的用法

修饰动词：

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He came to see me.
He as agreed to do it.
He sang a song to please her.
He tends to lie.
You'll soon get to know him.

修饰形容词：一定置于该形容词之后：

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He is able to handle the problem.
He os apt to lie.=He tends to lie.
This book is good to read.

修饰副词，一定置于该副词之后：

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He is too old to swim.
He is old enough to go swimming alone.

疑问词+不定式=名词短语：

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where to go
when to do it
how to swim
what to do
which to buy
whom to see

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What to do was the question.
He is learning how to do it.
The problem is where to start.

that从句化简为不定式

P157：

单一动词:

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It seems that he works hard.
=He seems(appears) to work hard.

#我刚巧在那里
It happended that I was there.
=I happended to be there.

be+过去分词:

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It is said: 据说         + that he is good.
It is reported: 据报道
It is rumored: 谣传
It is known: 据了解
It is thought: 一般认为
It is believed: 一般相信
=He is said(reported/...) to be good.

如何变化：时态相同时, to之后加原型动词：

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It seems that he works hard.
=He seems to work hard.

It appears that they are nice.
=they appear to be nice.

It was said that he loved music very much.
=He was said to love music very much.

It is said they love music very much.
=they are said to love music very much.

时态不同时，to之后加“have(曾经、已经)+过去分词”：

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It seems that he worked hard.
=He seems to have worked hard.

It is said that he was a thug(流氓) in the past.
=He is said to have been a thug in the past.

to be的省略：

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He seems to be nice.
=He seems nice.

prove+to be:

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#表证明：接名词或名词性从句作宾
The investigation proved his guilt.
=The investigation proved that he was guilty.

#to be: 表显示、结果是：
#他的话竟然是真的
What he said proved to be true.

#这份报告结果是错的
The report proved to be false.
=The report proved false.
=The report turned out to be false.
=The report turned out false.

使役动词加不定式短语作宾语补语

P160: 注意与P35的区别，叫、让之类的直接接动词原型。

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cause/get: 促使...
lead: 引导...
allow/permit: 允许...
advise: 劝告...
persuade: 说服...
enable: 使能够...
tell: 告诉...
beg/ask: 请求...
order: 命令...
want/wish/expect/intend: 期望...

The sad story caused him to cry.
His speech led me to understand the importance of learning English.
He advised me not to smoke again.

不定式短语作主语时，若短语中最后一个词为宾语，该宾语可移置句首作主语，其余部分则移到句尾：

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To please my father is hard.
=My father is hard to please.

To get along with him is easy.
=He is easy to get along with.

原型不定式

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can/could/shall/should/will/would/may/might/ought to/must + 原型动词

I can do it.
He should finish it.

知觉动词与原型不定式的关系

看、听、感觉+原型动词

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看：see/watch/observe/look at
听：hear/listen to
感觉：feel

#...了
I saw him enter the room.
I never heard him speak English.
I felt the house shake.

使役动词与原型不定式的关系

P164：

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let(让)、make(使)、bid(叫)、have(叫)+原型动词、当get(叫)+to+原形动词：

Let me try it.
=Allow me to try it.

I made him wash the car.

I had him wash the car.
=I got him to wash the car.

#make/let被动时，要改为to+原形动词
I let him leave.
=He was allowed to leave.

The made John clean the window.
=John was made to clean the window.

原形不定式的特殊结构

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#do nothing but + 原形不定式
He did nothing but eat all day.

#choose(expect/want/disire) nothing but + to + 原形动词
#He wanted to sleep
He wanted nothing but to sleep.

#be interested in nothing but+动名词/名词
He is interested in nothing but singing.

#enjoy nothing but+动名词/名词
I enjoy nothing but dancing.

#cannot but+原形不定式
When I heard the story, I couldn't but laugh.
=When I heard the story, I couldn't help laughing.
When I heard the story, I couldn't help but laugh.

分词

分词包括现在分词与过去分词：

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#进行： be+现在分词
He is doing the work.

#完成：have+过去分词
He has done the work.

#被动：be+过去分词
The job was done.

分词作形容词

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#表主动/被动的概念
令人...的：现在分词
感到...的：过去分词
受到...的：过去分词

#表进行/完成的概念
正在...的：现在分词
即将...的：现在分词
已经...的：过去分词

#现在分词作形容词：令人...的
The student raised a confusing question.

#现在分词作形容词：即将...的
The retiring teacher walked into the classroom.

#过去分词作形容词：已经...的
The retired teacher walked into the classroom.

#过去分词作形容词：置于be动词后作表语：感到...的
The teacher was confused.

#过去分词作形容词：受到...的: 
#受伤的士兵被急忙送到医院
The wounded soldier was rushed to hospital.

He is gone.
=He has gone.

We're closed
=We've closed.

He is retired.
=He has retired.

We are finished with the work.
=We have finished the work.

We are sold out of this book.
=We have sold out of this book.

分词作表语

a. be动词(或remain/become/appear/seem等系动词)后的表语：

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He is interested in it.
The bady is tiring.
He seems tired.

b. 及物动词后的宾语补语：

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I found him killed.
They found him tired.

动词若为及物动词，有两种形态：

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#现在分词+宾语
I found him killing cockroaches.
#过去分词
I found the cockroaches killed.
I found him killed.

动词若为不及物动词作宾语补语时，一律变成现在分词：

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I found him trembling.
I kept John waiting.

c. with复合结构中的宾语补语：

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He talked to me with his legs shaking.
He stood with his arms folded.

He talked to me with a pipe in his mouth.
=He talked to me pipe in mouth.

分词作名词

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The young should learn to cherish life.
=Young people should learn to cherish life.

The wounded were rushed to the hospital.
=Wounded people were rushed to the hospital.

分词作副词

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It's freezing cold today.
The tea is boiling hot.

An estimated 54 people were killed in the air crash.
=It's estimated that 54...

A great many students are more and more interested in learning English.

He is dead(completely) wrong.
It's awful(awfully/very) hot day.

分词结构一动词变化

a. 若两个动词无连词相连时，动作同时发后，第二个动词变成现在分词, 若为be动词，变成being后省略：

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He came home cried.(x)
He came home cring.

He sat in the corner reading a newspaper.

He came home was tired.(x)
He came home tired.

b. 若两个动词无连词相连时，动作有先后顺序，第二个动词变成to+原形动词, 若为be动词，变成being后省略：

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He came here saw me.(x)
He came here to see me.

He stood up to smoke a cigarette.

c. 若两个动词有逗号相隔，而无连接时，不必考虑动作的先后顺序，第二个动词一定变成现在分词：

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He left home at six in the moring, arrived here about four in the afternoon.(x)
He left home at six in the moring, arriving here about four in the afternoon.

He ran away quickly,looked as if something terrible had happened.
He ran away quickly,looking as if something terrible had happened.

分词结构一单句化简法

两句在一起，若无连词相连时，往往第一个句子要化简，变成分词短语：

a. 两句主语相同时，被简化的主语要删除，若主语主同时则要保留
b. 之后的动词要变成现在分词
c. 若该动词为be动词，变成现在分词being后，可以省略，但亦可不省略以强调因为的意思。

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He has nothing to do, he feels bored.(x)
having nothing to do, he feels bored.

He was sick of studying, he ran away from here.(x)
Sick of studying, he ran away from here.

The sun set, the cowboys rode back to the ranch.(x)
The sun setting, the cowboys rode back to the ranch.

He was not satisfied with the result, he decided to try again.(x)
Not satisfied with the result, he decided to try again.

He didn't intend to see her, he left early.(x)
Not intending to see her, he left early.

He had done the work, he felt happy.(x)
Having done the work, he left happy.

I have not seen her for ages, I miss her.(x)
Not having seen her for ages, I miss her.

#也可以消灭第二个句子，变成分词结构
He was reading a book, his wife knitting(编织) beside him.
=He was reading a book, and his wife was knitting beside him.
We will go picnicking tomorrow, weather permitting.
=We will go picnicking torrow if weather permits.

分词短语一定语从句化简法

P184

a. 删除关系词
b. 其后动词变成现在分词
c. 若be动词变成being省略
d. 非限定修饰的定语从句(关系代词前有逗号的)，通常不得化简为分词短语. 如果为关系代词+be+名词时，仍可化简

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The man who is talking to Mary over there is my father.
=The man talking to Mary over there is my father.

Who is the body that is locked behind the door?
=Who is the body locked behind the door?

I like Tom, who is talking to Mary.(ok)
=I like Tom, talking to Mary.(x)

John, who is a good friend of mine, studies hard.
=John, a good friend of mine, studies hard.

分词结构一状语从句化简法

once/when/while/if/unless/though等所引导的状语从句中，若主语与主句中的主语相同时，亦可化简为分词结构

once/if/unless只限：主语+be+分词/形容词

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If I am free, I will go with you.
=If free, I will go with you.

In those days, when he didn't know how to proceed in an emergency, he would consult his father.
=In those days, when not knowing to prceed in an emergency, he would consult his father.

He will do it if he is properly encouraged.
=He will do it if properly encouraged.

#除非另有指示,你应照我的话去做
Unless you are otherwise instructed, you should do as I said.
=Unless otherwise instructed, you should do as I said.

身体组织的名词可变成过去分词当形容词用

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The girl has big eyes.
I love the big-eyed girl.

She has red hair.
Do you see the red-haired girl there?

少数现在分词当介词

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including(包括)
excluding(除外)
considering(考虑)
regaring(关于)
concerning(关于)

Everyone likes the movie, including John.
=Everyone likes the movie, John excluded.

Considering his performance, he can be a good teacher.
=His performance considered, he can be a good teacher.

He wrote an article regarding(concerning/about/on) environmental pollution.

独立分词短语

P189

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Generally speaking... 一般而言
Strictly speaking... 严格说来
Frankly speaking... 老实说
Judging from his appearance... 从他的外表看来
Talking of novels... 谈到小说
According to John... 根据John的说法
Seeing that... 既然...

动名词

可在句中作主语、宾语及表语。

作主语

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Working with him is fun.

Not knowing what to do was an embarrassment for him.

be动词后的表语

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Seeing is believing.

#动名词
His hobby is collecting stamps.
#不定式
My hope(goal/desire/wish/intention/plan/purpose) is to fullfill the mission.

She is dancing.

动词的宾语

P195

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I remember seeing him.
He considered traveling abroad next year.
He recommended doing it soon.

#allow/permit/forbid(禁止)
He allowed(permitted) me to smoke.
He allowed(permitted) smoking.

#禁止
He forbade me to smoke.
He forbade smoking.

#remember/forget/regret
remember(记得曾) + 动名词
forget(忘记曾)
regret(后悔曾)

I remember seeing her before.
I remember having seen her before.
#我后悔做了此事
I regret doing it.
I regret having done it.

remember(记得要) + to V
forget(忘记要)
regret(遗憾要)

I remember to see him tomorrow.
I forgot to mail this letter.
#我很遗憾...
I regret to tell you the bad news.
=I'm sorry to tell you the bad news.

下面动词用不定式或动名词作宾语，意思不变：

like/love/hate/continued/gegan/started, dislike只能用动名词。

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I like to do it.
I like doing it.

介词的宾语

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He is fond of taking a walk.
His illness prevented us from starting our own business.
None would have dreamed of there being such a place.
The book is worth reading.

worth: prep. 值得

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#is worth+名词或动名词(recommended)
The issue is worth paying attention to.
The car is worth a fortune.

worthy: adj. 值得的(与of连用)

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The issue is worthly of everyone's attention.

worthwhile: adj. 值得的(置于名词前，亦可置于it it之后)

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That's a worthwhile book to read.
It is worthwhile to read that book
It pays to read that book.

所有格与动名词的关系

P199

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#that引导的名词性从句
That he teches well is something that pleases me.
=His teching well is something that pleases me.

That John refused to do his homework made his father angry.
John's refusing to do his homework made his father angry.

That he didn't finish the work on time disappointed me.
His not finishing the work on time disappointed me.

That they had helped John with the work won our great admiration.
There having helping John with the work won our great admiration.

like/diske/enjoy/mind后不可直接接that从句

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I dont like his smoking here.
I dont enjoy John's joining us.

#如果我开窗你介意吗？
Would you mind that I open the windows?(x)
Would you mind my opening the windows?
=Would you mind if I opened the windows.
#请你开窗子，你介意吗？
Would you mind opening the windows.

常用的动名词惯用语

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#There is no V+ing: 不可能
=It is impossible to V
There is no reasoning with such a stubborn man.
It is impossible to reason with such a stubborn man.

#It is no use V+ing: ...是无用的
=It is of no use to V
It is no use trying to escape.
It is of no use to try to escape.

#cannot help(resist/stop) + V一ing: 忍不住...
=cannot but V
=cannot help but V
He couldn't help crying when he saw her.
He couldn't but cry when he saw her.

#on V一ing: 一...就...
=As soon as/once/The moment/The instant
On(Upon) hearing it, he cried.
As soon as he heard it, he cried.

助动词及易用错的动词

助动词

shall/will

征求对方意见时：

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Shall I open the door?
=Would you like me to open the door?

请求对方合作时：

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Shall we go for a walk?
=Let's go for a walk, shall we?

命令对方时：

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You shall obey the law.
=You must obey the law.

should

主要功能就是表示一种义务，后面接原型动词：应当，=ought to

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We should be kind to others.

但也会有以下的其他意思。

会
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It is natural(自然的)       that...should   ....会...
      proper(适当的/合理的)
      right(正当的)
      advisable(恰当的)
      desirable(较好的)
      no wonder(无疑的)

#他会生气是很自然的事
It is natural that he should get angry.

#努力的人会成功，这个是合理的
It is proper that one who works hard should be successful.

It is no wonder that such a naughty boy should be punished.
=No wonder such a naughty boy should be punished.
应当
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It is necessary that...should...  ...应当...是有必要的
      imerative
      essential
      important
      urgent

#should可以省略
It is necessary that he (should) finish the work before leaving.

It is important that he finish the job before leaving.
居然
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It is surprising that...should(居然)...  令人惊异的是...居然
      amazing
it is surprising that he should be so kind.

It is a pity that...should(居然)...  令人遗憾的是...居然...
      a regret
      regrettable
It is a pity that he should be so rude.
意志动词

表建议(propose/recommend/suggest)、要求(ask/demand/desire/require/insist/request)、命令(order/command)、规定(rule/regulate)等后有that从句时，that从句中亦使用should，should往往省略:

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#他建议我们立刻离去
He suggested that we(should) leave at once.
#他们要求他安静
They demanded that he(should) be quiet.

以免
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He came early lest he(should) be late.
=He came early for fear that he might be late.(might不可省略)
万一
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If you should be late again, you will spoil the plan.
should have+过去分词

表示与过去事实相反的虚拟语气：早应…/应该早点…

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#你当时要是没救我，我就死了
If you had not helped me, I should have died.

#你应该早点做好的
You should have done it earlier.

#这么好的景色，你当时真该看看的
It was such a fine sight. You should have seen it.

表示”居然已经”:

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#令人惊讶的是他居然已通过了考试
It is surprising that he should have passed the examination.
#真遗憾他竟然做了这么愚蠢的事
It is a pity that he should have done such a stupid thing.

would

would是will的过去式，用以表示过去将来时

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He said, "I will try again."
He said that he would try again.
Did you know when he would come?

would虚拟语气

would+原形动词： (如果…)就会…
would have+过去分词

与现在事实相反：

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#如果我现在有钱，我会买部车(但我现在没有钱)
If I had money now, I would buy a car.

与过去事实相反：

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#当时我要是有钱，早就买车了
If I had had money then, I would have bought a car.

would rather+原形动词

宁愿…

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#我宁愿走也不要留在这儿
I would rather go than stay here.
=I would sonner go than stay here.
=I would as soon go as stay here.

I would rather that

我多么希望…. = I wish + that从句，属于虚拟语气，若与现在事实相反，that从句用一般过去式，若与过去事实相反，则用过去完成式：

与现在事实相反：

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#我多么希望他现在在这里
I would rather (that) he were here.
=I wish (that) he were here.

与过去事实相反：

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#我多么希望他昨天就在这里
I would rather he had been here yesterday.(But he wasn't here.)

would you mind

加Ving或if从句： 您介不介意…
=Do you mind…

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Would you mind doing it for me?
               if you did it for me?
=Do you mind doing it for me?
             if you do it for me?

would you mind会比较客气。would you mind从句中用过去式，do you mind从句中用现在式。

can/could

1.表”能力”：be able to，译成：能够

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He can cope with the problem.
=He is able to cope with the problem.

2.表可能性，译成：有可能

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#他要是这么说就可能错了
He can be wrong to say so.
                if he says so.

3.表许可，=may，译成：可以

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#你可以现在回家了
You can go home now.
#你不可以在这儿抽烟
You can't smoke here.

4.在疑问句或否定句中，表可能性，译成：有可能或不可能

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#这可能是真的吗？不，这不可能是真的
Can it be true? No, it can't be true.

5.表对过去事实的否定推理

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can't have+去过分词    不可能曾...
#他这么老实不可能昨天会偷你的钱
He is so honest that he can't have stolen your money yesterday.

#can仅用以表示对过去事物的否定推论，无法做肯定推论。无下列用法
he can have stolen your money.(x)

6.对过去事实的肯定推论，有两种句型：

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must have+过去分词    一定曾经...
#他看过来紧张兮兮，一定是偷了你的钱
He looks nervous; he must have stolen your money.

may have+过去分词    可能曾经...
#他看过来紧张兮兮，很可能偷了你的钱
He looks nervous; he may have stolen your money.

Can+S+have+过去分词    有可能...吗？
#他有可能偷了你的钱吗？
Can he have stolen your money?

7.would/could用在问句中表客气

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Could(would) you please do it for me?

8.could=was/were able to

9.can的惯用语

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#我只能这么做
I can but do so.
=I can only do so.
#我忍不住大笑
I cannot but laugh.
=I cannot help bu laugh.
=I cannot help laughing.

#cannot be too...: 再...也不会过
#我们在择友时再小心也不为过
We cannot be too careful in choosing friends.

#我一点儿也不在乎(我不能低于比现在不在乎的程度了)
I couldn't care less.

#我同意极了(我不能比现在更加地同意了)
I couldn't agree more.

may/might

1.表许可，译成：可以

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You may take whatever you like.
May I go home?
#might与would/could一样，在问句中有客气的语气
Might I make a suggestion?

2.表推测，译成可能，=can

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It may be true.
He may come, or he may not(come).
=Perhaps he will come;perhaps he will not(come).

3.may not有两种意思：

a.可能不会

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It's getting late; he may not come.

b.不可以=must not

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You may not cheat during exams.
    must not

4.might表过去的状况

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He said, "You may go"
He said that I might go.

5.might+原形动词 也许会…
might have+过去分词 当时也许会…

a.与现在事实相反

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If he tried hard, he might succeed.(But he doesn't try hard.)

b.与过去事实相反

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If he had tried hard, he might have succeeded.(But he didn't try hard.)

6.may的管用语

a.may well+原形动词 大可/足可以…

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#genius:天才
He knows so many things that he may well be called a genius.

b.may as well+原形动词 不妨…(语气缓和)
had better+原形动词 最好…(语气较强)

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#你不妨留在家中
You may as well stay home.
#你最好留在家中
You had better stay home.

c.may as well+原形动词+as+原形动词 与其…倒不好…
=had better+原型动词+than+原形动词

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#你倒不如留在家里，与其和他们出去。
You may as well stay home as go out with them.

may as well…as…表较大的可能性，might as well…as…表较小的可能性

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You might as well die as make friends with Mary.

must

1.must接原形动词

2.表义务，表“必须”

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You must finish the work before leaving.

3.must表一种义务上强制的必须，have to，有勉强的意味，表“有必要”

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You must love your country.

must只用于表示现在或将来，而have to则可用于表过去、现在及将来的状况

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#现在
You must come now.
#将来
You must come tomorrow.
#过去
He will have to come tomorrow.

否定式：

1) must not=may not 不可以

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#你绝不可以做这事
You must not do it.

2) don’t have to=need not 不必

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#你不必做这事
You don't have to do it.

口语中，have to被have got to或gotta取代

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I have to tell you the truth.
I've got to tell you the truth.(I've可以直接读成I)
I gotta tell you the truth.
但:
He has got to tell you the truth.
=He's totta tell you the truth.(s不能去掉)

4.must对现在状况或过去状况的推论

a.对现在状况的推论：must+原形动词 一定…

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#这一定是真的
It must be true.
但否定时，不能用It must not be true.(x)，还用：
It can't be true.(它不可能是真的)

b.对过去状况的推论：must+have+过去分词 一定曾经…

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It must have rained last night.

ought to

与should使用相同

need

1.需要

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He needs to go.
The car needs to be cleaned.
The car needs cleaning.

2.否定：need not+原形动词 不必

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#need not为固定，need第3人称不用加s
He need not go.
=He doesn't need to go.

dare

1.助动词

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dare not+原形动词    不敢...
dare one+原形动词    某人敢...吗？

#他不敢去
He dare not go.
#他敢去吗?
Dare he go?

2.How dare+一般陈述句？ …怎敢…?

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How dare you say such a thing to me?

3.在whether从句中，dare可作助动词

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#我怀疑他敢不敢做这事
I wonder whether he dare do it.

4.在肯定中，dare为一般动词

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#他敢去
He dares to go.
#他当时敢去
He dared to go.

5.dare not+原形动词 不敢…

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=do not dare(to)+原形动词
#他不敢接电话
He dare not answer the phone.
=He doesn't dare(to) answer the phone.

#我从来不敢与他说话
I have never dared(to) speak to him.

6.dare可作及物动词，表“向某人挑战”

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dare sb to+原形动词
=challenge sb to+原形动词

#他向我挑战跳过这条小溪
He dared me to jump the stream.

7.I daresay+that从句 我敢说…

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#我敢说他又会迟到
I daresay he will be late again.

used to

1.used to+原形动词 过去曾经…

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#他以前住过这儿
He used to live here.

#这座园子以前有个池塘
There used to be a pond in this garden.

He used to work hard.
Did he use to work hard?

2.人+be used to+名词或动名词=accustomed 某人习惯于…

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He is used to working alone.

#他还不习惯都市生活
He hasn't beed used to city life yet.

#他习惯大声说话
He is used to speaking alone.
=He is accustomed to speaking aloud.

物+be used to+原形动词 被用来…

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#这本书可用来教我们英语写作
The book can be used to teach us English writing.

物+be used as+名词 被用作…

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#这把刀被用来当武器
The knife was used as a weapon.

易用错的动词

P233

fly/flow

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fly的变化：fly/flew/flown/flying.
flow的变化：flow/flowed/flowed/flowing.(流)

take/bring

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take  (从此处)拿走
bring (从别处)拿来

Take the book to the library, please.
Bring them back here.

refuse

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refuse+名词
#他拒绝我的建议
He refused my suggestion.

refuse to+原形动词
He refused to go with me.

reject(排斥)+名词或者动名词
He rejected working with Mary because he thought she was too selfish.

refuse后不能接that从句
#他拒绝承认做错事
He refused toadmit that he had done something wrong.
=He denied that he had done something wrong.

take/cost

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It takes+人+时间+to V
It costs+人+金钱+to V

It takes(one) about two hours to go from here to Paris.
It cost(me) five dollars to buy that book.

reach/get to/arrive in(at)

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I |reached    |Chicago at 12.
  |arrived in |
  |got to     |

prefer

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prefer+名词(或动名词)+to+名词(或动名词): 比较喜欢...胜过...

I prefer coffee to tea.
I prefer going to the movies to watching TV.

prefer to+原形动词+|instead of+动名词   |
                  | rather that+原形动词|
 I prefer to go to the movies instead of watching TV.
=I prefer to go to the movies rather than watch TV.
=I prefer going to the movies to watching TV.

mind

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mind + if从句
=mind + 动名词

#你介不介意我把门打开？
Would you mind If I opened the door?
=Would you mind my opening the door?

#你介不介意去把门打开？
Would you mind if you opened the door?
=Would you mind opening the door?

resemble sb/sth

像…

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#你很像你哥哥
 You resemble your brother.
=You look like your brother.

succeed/fail

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succeed in+名词/动名词    在...获得成功/成功地...
#经过多年的努力，John经商成功了
John succeeded in business after years of hard work.
How many of you have succeeded in passing the test.

succeed+人+as    继承某人担任...的职位
John succeeded his father as president of this company.

fail: 失败
He failed to pass the test.

fail: 未通过考试、使某人不及格
He failed the test.

#老师让三分之一的学生不及格
The teacher failed one一third of his students.
            flunked

#不要辜负我
You are the only person I trust. Don't fail me.

设计、企图

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try      + to + 原形动词  设法要...
attempt  + to + 原形动词  企图要...
manager  + to + 原形动词  设法要...
endeavor + to + 原形动词  努力要...

I'll try to study harder.
=I'll attempt to study harder.
=I'll manager to study harder.

#我们努力拯救公司免于破产
We'll endeavor to save our company from going bankrupt.

remember/forget/regret

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remember to V    记得要...
remember +Ving   记得曾...

forget to V      忘了要...
foret + Ving     忘了曾...

regret to V      抱歉/遗憾要...
regret + Ving    后悔曾...

时态

种类

一般时

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1. 一般现在时
He writes a letter every day.

2. 一般过去时
He wrote a letter yesterday.

3. 一般将来时
He will write a letter tomorrow.

完成时

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1. 现在完成时
He has written the letter.

2. 过去完成时
He had written the letter when I came.

3. 将来完成时
He will have written the letter before I come.

进行时

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1. 现在进行时
He is writing a letter now

2. 过去进行时
He was writing a letter when I came.

3. 将来进行时
He will be writing a letter when I come.

完成进行时

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1. 现在完成进行时
He has been writing a letter for two hours.

2. 过去完成进行时
When I called, he had been writing a letter for two hours.

使用过去时的时机

主语+一般过去时动词

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1. 表过去的动作、习惯、状态：
I saw him yesterday.
He always rose early in the morning.
He was born in 1970

2. 表过去的经验，也可用现在完成时表示：
 Did you ever see her before?
=Have you ever seen her before?

3. 句中若有after/until/before等连词引导的从句，由于时间先后很清楚，可用一般过去时代替过去完成时：
 After I had finished the work, I went home.
=After I finished the work, I went home.
#我搬来这里之前曾在日本住过很长一段时间
 Before I moved here, I had lived in Japan for a long time.
=Before I moved here, I lived in Japan for a long time.

使用现在完成时的时机

主语+have+过去分词(have译成“已经”或“曾经”)：

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a. 用以表示到现在为止完成的动作：
I have just finished my homework.

b. 用以表示到现在为止的经验：
#我见过他几次
I have met him several times.
#我从未见过像他这样的人
I have never met such a man as he.

c. 表曾去过的经历用：have been，表已经到了某个地方：have gone
#他已经到香港去了(还没有回来)
He has gone to Hong Kong.
#他曾去过香港
He has been to Hong Kong.

使用过去完成时的时机

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主语+had+过去分词(had译成“已经”或“曾经”)，用以表示截至过去某时为止所完成的动作或经历：

He had studied English for 10 years before he left for the States.

He had already left when I came.

过去完成时不能单独存在，要与另一个一般过去时从句或表过去的副词短语连用：

先发生的动作—>用过去完成时表示
后发生的动作—>用一般过去时表示

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I lost the book which my father had given me.

使用将来完成时的时机

主语+will+have+过去分词(will have译成“将已经”), 用以表示到将来某时为止所完成或仍在继续的动作或经历等：

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#他将已抵达芝加哥
He will have arrived in Chicago by this time tomorrow.
#他就在此住满10年了
He will have lived here for 10 years by the end of this month.

使用现在进行时的时机

主语+be动词+现在分词(正在…)，不过也可以表示即将发生的动作，常与表将来的副词连用：此时be动词译成：即将…

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#他即将于今天来
 He is coming today.
=He will be coming today. 
#他们很快就要离开
 They are leaving soon.
=They will be leaving soon.

使用现在完成进行时的时机

主语+have/has been+现在分词(have/has been译成“一直都在…”), 用以表示一直继续到现在且仍将继续下去的运作：

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She has been working with this company for 5 years.
They have been standing here since 7 this morning.

使用过去完成进行时的时机

主语+had been+现在分词(had been译成“一直都在”)，与过去完成时一样，过去完成进行时不能单独存在，须与一般过去时连用。

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I had been sleeping when he came.
He told us that he had been studying German since 2001.

使用将来完成进行时的时机

主语+will have been+现在分词(will have been译成“将一直在”)，表一直继续到将来某时，而仍将继续进行的动作：

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到今年年底，我教英语将已有10年了
I will have been teaching English for ten years by the end of this year.

“for+一段时间”与完成时的关系

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for            the |past| five years    过去5年来
during             |last|
in
through
down through
over
=since five years ago    自从5年前起
这些短语与现在完成时或现在完成进行时连用
#过去两个星期来，我都一直在学英语
I have been studying English for the past two weeks.

since与完成时的关系

since与”for+一段时间”使用差不多，不过注意：

since之后须接明确的某段时间作宾语，不要接一段时间作宾语，若之后有一段时间，则须在一段时间之后接ago:

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Peter has lived here since 2002.
Peter has lived here since two years ago.

现在完成时或现在完成进行时的动词与“for+一段时间”连用时，该动词所表示的动作必须可接续进行，否则就不可与“for+一段时间”连用：

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I have lived here for five years.

He has died for two months.(x)
=He has died.
=It is two months since he died.
=Two months have passed since he died.

He has married Jane for twenty years.(x)
=He has married Jane.
=It is twenty years since he married Jane.
=Twenty years have passed since he married Jane.

语态

语态有两种：主动与被动。形成被动语态一定是及物动词：

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原句的宾语作主语+be动词+过去分词
Everyone loves him.
He is loved by everyone.

虚拟语气

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a. 纯条件的虚拟语气---用现在式
如果他在这儿，我会揍他
If he is here, I will beat him.

b. 与现在事实相反的虚拟语气---用过去时
如果他现在在这儿，我会揍他
If he were here, I would beat him.(But he is not here.)

c. 与过去事实相反的虚拟语气---用过去完成时
如果他当时在这儿，我会揍他
If he had been here, I would have beaten him.(But he was not here.)

d. 与将来状况相反的虚拟语气---if从句要用助动词should，译成“万一”，主句则用过去时或现在时助动词
万一他在这儿，我会揍他
If he should be here, I would(或will) beat him.

纯条件虚拟语气

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If+主语+一般时动词，主语+will(may/can/should/shall/must/ought to)+原形动词

If he comes, you should tell him the truth.

once/when/before/as soon as/unless等副词也可以构成条件句，与if用法相同

One I have money, I will buy a car.
When he finishes it, he may come.
I will not do anything before he arrives.

与现在事实相反的虚拟语气

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If+主语+一般过去时动词， 主语+would(could/might/should/ought to)+原形动词

If he lived in my town, I could see him every day.

be动词统一使用were
If I were rich, I would help you.
因为我不是很有钱，所以我不能帮你
=As I am not rich, I can't help you.

主句中的助动词一定为过去时助动词
will->would
may->might
can->could
shall->should或者ought to
must只能表示现在或将来的状况，只用于纯条件的虚拟语气中。

与过去事实相反的虚拟语气

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If+主语+had+过去分词，主语+would(could/might/should/ought to)+have+过去分词

要是他当时听了你的劝告，就可能会避免这个错误了
If he had taken your advice, he might have avoided the mistake.

If he had had money, he would have bought a car.

如果if从句与过去事实相反，用过去完成时；主句与现在事实相反，则置助动词过去时：
If+主语+had+过去分词，主语+would(could/might/should/ought to)+原形动词+now(today)

If I had started saving then, I would be able to buy a car now.
If I had started saving then, I would have been able to buy a car now(x)

If I had met her five years ago, she might be my wife today.

与将来状况相反的虚拟语气

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译成"万一..."

a. 低可能性：主句要用过去时助动词
If+主语+should+原形动词，主语 would(could/could/might/should/ought to)+原形动词

万一你生病，会议将延期---你不太可能生病，会议不太可能延期
If you should fall ill, the meeting would be put off

If it should rain, I would stay home.

b. 高可能性：主句要用现在时助动词
If+主语+should+原形动词，主语+will(can/may/should/ought to)+原形动词

万一你生病，会议将延期---你可能会生病，而会议也可能延期
If you should fall ill, the meeting will be put off.

If it should rain, I will stay home.

也可能与祈祷句形成的主句连用
万一我迟到，务必要等我---我可能会迟到
If I should be late, be sure to wait for me.

使用虚拟语气的注意事项

  1. 表示强烈与真理相反的虚拟语气句型：

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    If the cat were to smile, I would pass out.
    The cat can't smile.

  2. if的省略：

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    if从句中，若有过去完成时助动词had/should/were(何秀华)时，可将这3个词置于主语前，而将if省略

    a. had
     If he had done it, he would have felt sorry.
    =Had he done it, he would have felt sorry.

    b. should
     If he should tell lies, I would punish him.
    =Should he tell lies, I would punish him.

    c. were
     If he were lazy, he might fail.
    =Were he lazy, he might fail.

  3. 可取代if的其他连词：

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    in case(that): 万一
    on condition that: 如果
    provided/providing(that): 如果
    so long as/as long as: 只要

    只要书有趣，哪本书都可以
    Any book will do as long as it is interesting.

    in case +that从句    万一...
    in case of+名词      万一...
     In case an accident happens, don't panic.
    =In case of an accident happens, don't panic.

  4. but for

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    =without 若非/要不是...

    a. 与现在事实相反：若非...就...
     If it were not+that从句(一般现在时)，主语+could(would/might/should/ought to)+原形动词
    =But for+名词，

    要不是他努力工作，我才不会喜欢他
     If it were not that he works hard, I wouldn't like him.
    =If it were not for his hard work, I...
    =Were it not for his hard work, I...
    =But for his hard work, I.. 

    b. 与过去事实相反：若非当时...就...
     If had not been that从句(一般过去时)，主语+could(would/might/should/ought to)+have+过去分词
    =But for+名词，

     If it had not been that he lent me the money, I could not have bought that book.
    =If it had not been for the money (which) he lent me, I...  
    =Had it not been for the money (which) he lent me, I...  
    =But for the money (which) he lent me, I...  

     But for his help, I couldn't have done it.
    =Without his help, I couldn't have done it.

    若非他及时警告，我可能已经没命了
     But for his timely warning, I might have been killed.
    =Without his timely warning, I might have been killed.

  5. lest…(should)…

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    以免...
    =for fear that+主语+may+原形动词(表现在或者将来的状况)
                       might+原形动词(表过去的状况) 
    =for fear of+动名词

    你必须努力学习，以免考试不及格
     You must study hard lest you (should) fail the exam.
    =You must study hard for fear that you may fail the exam.
    =You must study hard for fear of failing the exam.

     He did it carefully lest you make the same mistake again.
    =He did it carefully for fear that you might make the same mistake again.
    =He did it carefully for fear of making the same mistake again.

  6. as if

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    =as though...    仿佛...(副词)

    a. 表极大的可能->动词使用一般时态

    看过来好像要下雨了
    It looks as if it is going to rain.

    b. 表与现在事实相反->动词使用一般过去时
    Mr. Wang loves me as if I were his own child.

    c. 表与过去事实相反->动词使用过去完成时
    It looks as if nothing had happended.

  7. What if…should…?

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    要是...的话会怎样/要怎么办？ 表示对将来状况存疑的虚拟语气，if从句多置助动词should

    要是他来了，会怎样/怎么办？
     What if he should come?
    =What might happen if he should come?
    =What could I do   if he should come?

    要是下雨了，怎么办？
    What if should rain?

    What也可以用一般现在时：

     What if he comes?
    =What shall we do if he comes?

     What if rains?
    =What may happen if it rains?

  8. It’s time+that从句的一般过去时

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    It's time(about time/hight time) + that从句的一般过去时    该时...的时候了

    该是他上床睡觉的时间了
    It's time he went to bed.

    该是我们行动的时候了
    It's time we did it.

    也可以改为不定式形式：
     It's time he went to bed.
    =It's time for him to go to bed.
    =It's time to go to bed.

  9. If only…

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    要是...就好了

    只用于与现在事实或者过去事实相反的虚拟语气中，只能用一般过去时或者过去完成时：

    要是他在现在在这里就好了
     If Only he were here.
    =I wish he were here.

    要是我早点知道这事就好了
     If only I had known it earlier.
    =I wish I had known it earlier.

  10. wish的用法

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    a. 接that从句，一定要用虚拟语气，若与现在事实相反，用一般过去时若与过去事实相反，用过去完成时：

    I wish (that) he is here(x)
    I wish he were here.
    =It's too bad that he is not here.

    b. I wish that... 真希望...就好了
    =I would rather(that)...

    真希望我当时更用功就好了
    I wish I had studied harder when young.
    =I would rather I had studied harder when young.

  11. hope的用法

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    接that从句，使用一般时态，表示极大的可能性：

    a. 表示现在的状况
    I hope he is safe.

    b. 表示将来的状况
    I hope he will back.

    c. 表示进行的状况
    I hope they are having a good time.

    d. 表示完成的状况
    I hope they have finished the work.

    祈使句：

    祝你长命百岁
     I hope he may live long.
    =May he live long!

     I hope you may pass the exam.
    =May you pass the exam. 

    上帝保佑你
     May God bless you!
    =God bless you!

    国王万岁
     May the king live long!
    =Long live the king!

  12. wish和hope的异同

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     I wish to travel abroad.
    =I hope to travel abroad.

    与for连用，表“期望获得”
    #我希望能有机会尝试一下
    I wish for a chance to try it.

    表祝福时，只能用wish，接两个名词或代词作宾语

    我祝你们玩的愉快
    I wish you a good time.
    I wish my parents longevity.

    I hope that you have a good time.
    I hope my partents can live long.

  13. 对过去事物的猜测的三种句型

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    a. must have+过去分词    一定曾经...
    他博学多才，一定受过良好的教育
    He is learned; he must have received a good education.

    b. may have+过去分词    可能曾经...
    他看起来很疲惫，可能昨晚熬夜很晚
    He looks tired; he may have stayed up late last night.

    c. cannot have+过去分词    不可能曾经...
    他是老实人，不可能偷了玛丽的钱
    He is honest; he cannot have stolen Mary's money.

    若表示猜测的结构为疑问句，要用“Can...have...?”
    他可能做了这样的事吗？
    May he have done it?(x)
    Can he have done it?

副词

副词的功能

  1. 修饰动词：

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    置于动词之后：
    He studies hard.
    I love you very much.

  2. 修饰形容词：

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    置于形容词之前：
    He is very kind.
    It is extremely dangerous to swim alone.
    This is probably true.

  3. 修饰副词：

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    置于该副词之前：
    He studies very diligently.
    He does things too carefully.

  4. 修饰全句：

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    置于句首：
    Fortunately, he did not die.
    这答案显然是对的
    Evidently, this answer is right.

副词的位置

一般规则

  1. 有be动词时，置于be动词之后:

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    He is always kind.
    They are really able to do it.

  2. 有助动词时，置于助动词之后：

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    He can hardly walk.
    He has never been to the US before.

  3. 有一般动词时，置于该动词之前，但修饰的动词的副词表示某种状态时，则置于动词之后：

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    The often go fishing.
    He really cares about you.

    修饰的动词的副词表示某种状态时，则置于动词之后：
    She dances beautifully.
    He droves his car fast.

    修饰动词的副词表示肯定、否定或频率的意味，则置于动词之前：
    肯定意味的动词：surely/certainly/absolutely/probably/really
    They certainly hope to win the game.

    否定意味的动词：never/seldom/hardly ever(几乎不曾)/always/often
    He often comes to school late.

  4. 状态副词在被动语态中的位置：

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    置于过去分词前：
    He did the job well.
    The job was well done.

  5. 时间副词：

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    句子短时，置于句尾，句子长时，置于句首
    Yesterday I saw him chatting very pleasantly with a blonde girl in the park.
    I saw him in the park yesterday.

  6. 地点副词：

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    置于动词之后：here/there/home/downtown/upstairs/downstairs in/out/up/down
    He come here.

    in/out/up/down等之后有宾语，则为介词
    He sat in the corner.
    He looked out of the windows.

    in/out/up/down等之后若无宾语，则为副词
    He come in.

  7. 副词短语

置于句尾，修饰句中的动词

He loves her with all his heart.
he came by bus.

  1. 不定式短语当副词

除修饰动词外，还可置于形容词或副词后，修饰该形容词或副词:

You will soon come to realize that you are mistaken.

She went to Italy in order to sutdy music.

I am sorry to have kept you waiting.

  1. 名词性从句修饰形容词

I am sorry that I cannot attend your party.

I am not sure whether he’ll come.

重要的副词用法

  1. very/much 很/非常

比较极的形容词或副词中，只能用much:

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He walked much more slowly than I.
He is much happier than Peter.
修饰too时只能用much
He is much too young.
  1. little/a little
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little作副词，视为否定：一点儿都不，等于no:
病人的情况并没比昨天好到哪儿去
The patient's condition is little better than (it was) yesterday.

a little作副词，译成：有点儿
The patient's condition is getting a little better.
  1. no longer
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不再：
=no more
=not...any longer
=not...anymore
他不再在这儿了
 He is no longer here.
=No longer is he here.
=He is not here any longer.
=He is not here any more.
  1. sometimes/sometime/some time/some times
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a. sometime 有时候
他有时候会来这儿走一下
Sometimes he comes here for a visit.

b. sometime 某时(不知何时)
可用于一般过去时或一般将来时，使用时通常与另一明确的时间副词或副词短语连用：

一般过来时：
我昨天早上某个时间见过他
I saw hime sometime yesterday morning.

一般将来时：
我明天某个时间会在这里
I'll be here sometime tomororw.

c. some time 一段时间
我会在这儿待一阵子
I'll stay here (for) some time.
不久前他还在这里
He was here some time ago.

d. some times 有几次
=a few times
=several times.
建议使用a few times或several times.
我曾去过泰国几次
I have been to Thailand a few times.
  1. ago/before/since/after
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a. ago表“距现在若干时间以前”，时态用一般过去时

他几一前来过这儿
He came here a few days ago.

How long ago did he come?

b. before表“距过去某时若干时间以前”，时态用过去完成时:
When I met Jim last week, He told me he had just gotten back from a trip to Lake Placid two days before.
注意：
ago只能用在一般过去时的结构。ago不能单独使用，但before可以作为单独副词单独使用：
I met him ago(x)
I me him two hours ago(ok)
I met him before(ok)
I have met him befoe(ok)
I told him that I had met him before.(ok)

c. since  自从...

I have studied English Since I moved here in 2001.
He told me that he had written two books since he moved here in 2001.

since作副词，译成之后，置于句尾或have/has/had之后，修饰现在完成、进行时或者过去完成、进行时：
我于2001年搬到此处，之后就一直在学习英文
 I moved here in 2001 and have studied English since.
=I moved here in 2001 and have since studied English.

d. after  之后
作副词译成“之后”，与since不同，since修饰完成时，而after则修饰过去时，此时等于later或afterwards.
He fell ill on Monday and died three days after(later).
The war ended in 1945, and they lived happily ever after.
  1. quite 十分地
    rather 相当…地
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此二词可修饰原级之副词或形容词。

他相当老了
He is quite old.
他蛮老的
He is rather old.
他相当用功
He studies quite hard.

修饰“形容词+单数名词”时，应在a或an之前：
他是一个相当不错的学生
He is quite a good student.
They are quite good students.
  1. someday/one day/the other day/some other day
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a. someday  将来有一天(用于未来时)
Keep on working hard, and someday you will be successful.

b. one day  某日
表前几天时，等于the other day，也可指几年前的某一天，两者均用过去时
有一天我在城里看到他
 I saw him downtown one day.
=I saw him downtown the other day.

表将来总有一天，等于someday，用于将来时
总有一天你会后悔的
 One day you'll be sorry.
=Someday you'll be sorry.

c. the other day  前些时间，用于一般过去时
前几天我到公园玩了一趟
I went to the park for a visit the other day.

d. some other day  改天，用于一般将来时
我现在很忙，改天再拜访你
I'm busy now, I'll visit you some ther day.
  1. somewhat/somehow/anyhow
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a. somewhat  有一点儿，副词，置于形容词或副词前，以修饰形容词或副词：
 It's somewhat cold today.
=It's a little cold today.
=It's a bit cold today.
他这件事做得有些粗心
 He did the job somewhat carelessly.
=He did the job a little(bit) carelessly. 

b. somehow  不知怎的，=for some unknown reason.
            设法，=by some means.
1) 表不知怎的，作独立副词，置于句首，修饰全句
他人不错，但不知怎的，我就是不喜欢他
He is nice; but somehow I don't like him.

2) 表设法，作一般副词，修饰句中的动词，置于句尾
我们必须设法找到这笔钱
We must find the money somehow.

c. anyhow  况且，而且，=besides/in addition
           不管如何，=anyway/at any rate
我没有时间去年电影，况且电影也太贵了
I don't have time to go to the movie last year, they're too expensive anyhow.

表“不管如何”时，anyhow为独立副词，通常置于句首，之后有逗号，修饰逗号之后整个主句：
不管怎样，我们可以试试看
Anyhow, we can try.
anyway,
at any rate,
  1. enough 
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a. 形容词，表足够/充分的，修饰名词
他有足够的钱买一辆拉风的车
He has enough money |to buy| a fance car.
                    |for   |
b. 副词，表足以，修饰形容词或副词，置于形容词或副词之后
他条件好，足以担任些职位
He is good enough to fill the position.
He is good enough for the position.
他跑得够快而赶上了火车
He ran fast enough to catch the train.
  1. likely/probably/possibly 可能地
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likely/probaly表示“很可能”，而possibly则表示“有可能但不确定”
很有可能他会来: likely作副词时，之前可用very或most加以修饰
He will(very/most) likely come.

她很可能将要离开
She will probaly leave.

他们说不定会帮他
They will possibly help him.

likely也可以用形容词：probable不能修饰人
 He is likely to come.
=It's likely that he will come.
=It's probable that he will come.
  1. Short Response
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你是...， 我也是/你不是...，我也不是.
a. 肯定句
1). be动词，主语与be动词倒装
他人很好，她也很好
He is nice, and so is she.
            and she is, too.

2). 助动词，主语与助动词倒装
他要来，她也要来
He will come, and so will she.
              and she will, too.

3). 一般动词，主语与do/does/did倒装
他来了，她也来了
He came, and so did she.
         and she did, too.
他有一本书，她也有
He has a book, and so does she.
               and she does, too.

同一个人时，不倒装
He is stupid. So he is(=Indeed he is.)
You can't do it. So I can't.

b. 否定句用neither(或nor，使用neither或nor采用倒装句)或either. neither前要加and,当nor不用：
1). be动词，主语与be动词倒装
他不好，她也不好
He is not nice, and neither is she.
                nor is she.
                and she isn't, either.
他没有回家，她也没有回家
He wasn't going home, and neither was she.
                      nor was she.
                      and she wasn't, either.

2). 助动词，主语与助动词倒装
他不来，她也不来
He won't come, and neither will she.
               nor will she.
               and she won't, either.
他没去，她也没去
He hasn't gone, and neither has she.
                nor has she.
                and she hasn't, either.

3). 一般动词，主语与do/does/did倒装
他绝不说谎，她绝不说谎
He never tells a lie, and neither does he.
                      nor does he.
                      and she doesn't, either.
他没有书，她也没有
He has no book, and neither does she.
                nor does she.
                and she doesn't, either.

also只能又在肯定式中，置于be动词之后，或者一般动词之前：
他很亲切，她也是
He is kind, and she is also kind.
He has a pen, and she also has one.
  1. 常见“名词+介词+名词”短语
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手拉手: hand in hand
肩并肩: shoulder to shoulder/slide by slide
臂挽着臂: arm in arm
逐字地: word for word
天天: day by day
夜夜: night after night
渐渐地: little by little
一个一个地: one by one
陆续地: one after another
面对面地: face to face

他们手牵手沿着那条路走下去
They walked hand in hand down the road.
他们陆续地走进去
They came in one after another.
  1. not要置于不定式短语、分词、动名词之前
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由于有很多事要办，我决定不去旅行
Since having a lot of work to do, I decided not to go on a trip.

他假装不认识我
He pretended not to know me.

工作没完成，我决定留下来
I don't have finished the work, I decided to stay.
=Not having finished the work, I decided to stay.

他很失望没把工作完成
He was disappointed at not having finished the work.
  1. 助动词+副词十本动词
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我以前从没见过他
I have never seen him before.
  1. 副词修饰被动语态时，通常置于过去分词之前
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他演说得很好
His speech was well presented.

那件事终于解决了
That case was finally settled.
  1. more than与倍数的关系
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more than应置于倍数之前:

a. 先造一个含有“倍数词+as ⋯ as ⋯ ”的句子
他的钱是你的三倍:
He has three times as much money as you do.

b．再于“倍数词十as ⋯ as ⋯ ”的结构前置人more than，即告完成。
He has more than three times as much money as you do．
（他的钱超过你的三倍。）

c. more than亦可置于动词double（增加一倍）之前。
Our income has more than doubled in one year.
（一年之内我们的收人增加了一倍多。）
  1. more than与over的关系
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over作介词表“超过”时，可用more than代替:
他已待在此地一年多
He has stayed here over a year.
He has stayed here more than a year.

这里的学生超过5人
Over five students are here.
More than five students are here.
  1. 避免双重否定
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not ever=never
他从来没去过日本
 He has not ever been to Japan before.
=He has never been to Japan before.

scarcely = hardly = almost not为否定副词:
他几乎不会做这工作
He can scarcely do this work.
He can hardly do this work.

他几乎没有钱
He has hardly any money.
  1. 关系副词when/why/how/where
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这就是我们该出发的时候
This is the time when we should set out.
=This is when we should set out.

这就是他为何迟到的理由
This is the reason why he was late.
=This is why he was late.

这就是他成功的方法
This is the way he succeeded.
This is how he succeeded.

那是我出生的地方
That is the place where I was born.
That is where I was born.
  1. I think so
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think 、 hope 、 believe 、 be afraid 、 imagine等动词之后加so，可代替肯定句，加not则代替否定句:
A: 15 he nice?
B: Yes, I think so.
   No, 1 think not.

Will he come?
B: I'm afraid not.
   I'm afraid so.
  1. all（三人以上一起）、both（两人一起）
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约翰、保罗和彼得明天都要来这里庆祝杰克的生日
John、Paul and peter will all come here to celebrate Jack's birthday.

这五位都是好学生
These five students are all good.

这两位人选都有资格做此工作
The two candidates are both qualified for this work.

他和我明天都要去美国
He and I will both go to the American tomorrow.
  1. 容易混淆的副词
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a . close（近）、 closely（仔细地，严密地）
我住在他家附近
I live close to his house.
=I live near his house.
好好盯着他
Watch him closely.

b . most（最）、 mostly（大部分，大都）
在这些书中，这本最有趣
Of all these books, This one is the most interesting.

这些书大部分都过时了
These books are mostly out of date.

c. near（近）、 nearly(=almost，几乎）
他住附近，不在远处
He lives near, not far.
他差点淹死了
He was nearly drowned.

near虽可作介词，但在下列短语中，near之后仍应置人to，形成固定短语
come near to + V 一 ing差一点就⋯
他差点淹死了
 He came near to being drowned.
=He came close to being drowned.
=He was nearly drowned.

d. high  表实际空间(可以测量)的 高
   deep                        深
   wide                        宽
   highly 表程度而不指空间的     高
   deeply                      深
   widely                      宽

飞机高高在天上飞着
The airplane flew high in the sky.
他大大地受到赞扬
He was highly praised.
我们赞扬他
We spoke highly of him.
我们很看重他
We think highly of him.
他潜人河中深处
He dove deep into the river
他伤得很重
He was deeply hurt.
  1. greatly与highly之区别
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a . greatly表示"大量地，大大地"
他大大地吃了一惊
He was greatly surprised.
车祸次数大幅增加
The number of traffic accidents has increased greatly.

b. highly表“高高地”，通常与“表扬” 、 “奖励” 、 “推荐”等动词（如praise 、recommend）连用:
我们很看重他
We think highly of him.
  1. nowhere（=in noplace）在任何地方都不
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此亦为否定副词，置于句首要采倒装句:
这种人我在任何地方都找不到
Nowhere could I find such a man.

倒装结构

  1. 否定倒装句：
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我没见过像她这么美的女孩
I have never seen such a pretty girl as she (is).
Never have I seen such a pertty girl as she.
  1. so/much倒装句：
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他人很好，值得我尊敬
He is so kind that he deserves all my respect.
So kind she that he deserves all my respect.
  1. 地方副词倒装句：
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那儿站着一个男孩
A boy stood there.
There stood a boy.
  1. 完全倒装句：
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助人的人值得称赞
It worth to praise for those who help others.
Those who help others are praiseworthy.
Praiseworthy are those who help others.
  1. as取代though的倒装句：
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他虽然很好，我却不喜欢他
Though he is nice, I don't like him.
Nice as he is, I dislike him.
As nice as he is, I dislike him.

否定倒装句

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常用的否定副词：
never: 从不
hardly: 几乎不 = scarely
rarely: 很少
seldom: 很少
little: 一点儿也不

常用的否定副词短语：
by no means: 绝对不
in no way: 绝对不
on no accout: 绝对不
under no circumstances: 绝对不
in no situation:  绝对不

常用的否定状语从句：
not until+S+V: 直到...
only when+S+V: 只有到...的时候
only after+S+V: 只有到...之后

  1. 如何倒装：

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    先将否定副词、否定副词短语或否定状语从句移到句首,再检查原结构主语之后的动词，采问句倒装。

    a. be动词
    be动词与主语倒装

    他从不快乐
    He is never happy.
    Never is he happy.

    他几乎从未安静过
    He is hardly ever quiet.
    Hardly is he ever quiet.

    他绝非我们需要的人
    You are by no means the person we need.
    By no means are you the person we need.

    直到他来，我才发现这件事
    I was not aware of it until he came.
    No until he came was I awae of it.

    只有玛丽跟他在一起的时候，他才快乐
    He is happy only when Mary is with him.

    b. 助动词
    助动词与主语要倒装

    他几乎不能动
    He can hardly move.
    Hardly can he move.

    他从来没做过这件事
    He has never done it before.
    Never has he done it before.

    c. 一般动词
    与疑问句一样，变成do/does/did+原形动词

    他很少唱歌
    He seldom sings.
    Seldom does he sing.

    他一点儿也没有想到玛丽的英语这么好
    He little knew that Mary's English could be so good.(x, 没有He little knew的说法)
    Little did he konw that Mary's English could be so good.

  2. only+介词短语及only+then

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only then: 唯有在那时
均视为否定副词短语，置于句首时，采倒装：
只有这么做你才会成功
Only by doing so can you succeed.
有了他的帮忙，我才能克服困难
Only with his help will be able to weather the fifficulties.

到那时我才离开
|Only then        |did I leave.
|Only at that time|
  1. not+a+单数可数名词 连一个…都没有

我在那儿一个人也没有看到
I didn’t see a soul(=a person) over there.
Not a soul did I see over there.

I was not able to discover a clue to the murder.
No a clue to the murder was I able to discover.
这件谋杀案我连一点蛛丝马迹也没法找到

  1. nowhere=in no place 在任何地方都不

这种人我在任何地方都找不到
Nowhere could I find such a man.

  1. 一…就…的句型
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a. 同时态的状语从句
 As soon as she saw me, she passed out.
=Once she saw me, she passed out.
=The instant she...
=The moment she ...

b. On/Upon+N/V一ing, S+V
upon或on之后加名词或动名词，也表示"一...就..."的意思

主语相同：
我一做完工作就回家
 As soon as I finished the job, I went home.
=Upon/On finishing the job, I went home.

不同主语：
Upon/On用所有格
他一到我就走了
 As soon as he arrived, I left.
=Upon/On his arriving, I left.

so/such倒装句

so…that或such…that倒装结构时，so或much及所引导的词类置于句首，与否定结构句完全相同

  1. 有be动词时：
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他这么乐于助人，因此我们都喜欢他
 He is so helpful that we all like him.
=So helpful is he that we all like him.
  1. 有助动词时：
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他做得这么好，所以值得我们尊敬
 He has done so well that deserves our respect.
=So well has he done that deserves our respect.
  1. 有一般动词时：
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他太晚到，而没有赶上火车
 He came so late that missed the train.
=So late did he come that missed the train.

地方副词倒装句

三种倒装句型

地方副词(there/here)或地方副词短语(in the room/at the station/by the window)置于句首时，亦可形成倒装：

  1. 第一型
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主语+不及物动词+地方副词
               地方副词短语
->
地方副词    +不及物动词+主语
地方副词短语

 A girl sat there.
=There sat a girl.

 A girl sat by the door.
=By the door sat a girl.

 A book is on the desk.
=On the desk is a book.

玛丽站在门口
 Mary stood in the doorway.
=In the doorway stood Mary.
  1. 第二型
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主语+be动词+过去分词+地方副词或地方副词短语
->
地方副词或地方副词短语+be动词+过去分词+主语

门后锁着一个人
 A man was locked behind the door.
=Behind the door was locked a man.

那里坐落着一所学校
 A school is located there.
=There is located a school.
  1. 第三型
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主语+be动词+现在分词+地方副词或地方副词短语
->
现在分词+地方副词或地方副词短语+be动词+主语

那儿有一个女孩在唱歌，她是我女友
#A girl is singing over there, she is my girlfriend.
Singing over there is a girl, who is my girlfriend.

玛丽与大卫坐在大门前
 Mary and David were sitting in front of the gate.
=Sitting in front of the gate were Mary and David.
=In front of the gate were sitting Mary and David.

主语必为普通名词或专有名词

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若主语为代词时，地方副词可放在句首，但句子不倒装：

他站在那儿
 He stood there.
=There he stood.

他站在房子前面
 He stood in front of the house.
=In front of the house he stood.

他被锁在那里
 He was locked in there.
=There he was locked in.

here与there的习惯用语

置于句首为代词，不倒装：

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Here we are: 到了

Here you are/Here you go: 拿去吧

There you go again: 你又来这一套了

There you are/There it is: 在那里

比较结构

  1. 原级比较：as
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他和彼得一样用功
He work as hard as Peter.
He is as diligent as Peter.

他没有Peter那么用功
He doesn't study so hard as Peter.
  1. 一般比较：than
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他比彼得用功
He is more diligent than Peter.

他没有彼特更用功
He doesn't study harder than Peter.

一般比较结构

  1. 造句方式：
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a. 先造一个含有形容词或副词的句子：

他很小心
He is prudent.
他工作很热心
He works enthusiastically.

b. 再将句中形容词或副词变成比较级：
他比较小心
He is more prudent.
他工作比较不热心
He works less enthusiastically.

c. 再设定比较对象，并在该比较对象之前置副词连词than：
He is more prudent than Peter.
He works less enthusiastically than Peter.
  1. than引导的状语从句结构变化：
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若有be动词、助动词可保留，若有一般动词以do/does/did代替，当然这些也可以省略。

a. be动词
他没有你负责任
He is less responsible than you (are).

b. 助动词
他唱歌比你悦耳
He can sing more beautifully than you (can).

c. 一般动词
他工作比你仔细
He worked more carefully than you (did).
  1. less之后的副词或形容词均使用原级：
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他没有John勤奋
He is less hardworking than John.

他没有John那么常来看我们
He visits us less often than John.

他做事没有John那么小心
He does things less carefully than John.
  1. 与本身作比较：
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他比以前用功
He studies hander than he did before.

她看来比较实际年轻
She looks younger than she is.

a. 自行比较时，句中的时态若不同：
1). be动词
他比以前健康(不同时态)
He is healthier than he was.

2). 助动词
他比以前唱歌好(不同时态)
He can sing better than he could.

3). 一般动词

他比以前努力
He work hander than he did.
                    he used to.

b. 此类中若有对等的介词短语,than之后的主语及动词或助动词都可以省略：
1) 介词短语
他和玛丽在一起比和简在一起快乐
 He is happier with Mary than He is with Jane.
=He is happier with Mary than with Jane.

他对英文比对日文有兴趣
He is more interesting in English than (he is) in Janpanese. 
2) when从句
他比我十年前看见他时瘦多了
He is thinner than (he was) when I saw him ten years ago.
  1. 比较结构中相同动词的化简
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我比他爱你
 I love you more than he loves you.
=I love you more than he does you.
=I love you more than he does.
  1. 数量形容词的比较级变化：
    数量形容词：much/little/many/few
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a. much(很多的)及little(很少的)修饰不可数名词：
原级    比较级  最高级
much    more   the most
little  less   the least

many    more   the most
few     fewer  the fewest

他有很多钱
 He has very much money.
=He has a lot of money.(佳)
肯定式中用very much或a lot of，否定式中则使用much

他比John有钱
He has more money than John (does).

他是所有人中最有钱的
He has the most money of all.

他的时间很少
He has little time.

他做这工作的时间比我的少
He has less time than I (do) for the job.

他的时间最少
He has the least time of all.

b. many(很多的)及few(很少的)修饰可数的复数名词：
他有很多朋友
He has many friends.

他的朋友比John的多
He has more friends than John.

他的朋友最多
He has the most friends of all.

他的朋友很少
He has few friends.

他的朋友比John的少
He has fewer friends than John.

他的朋友最少
He has the fewest friends of all.
  1. 避免错误比较
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这个篮子里的苹果比桌子上的那些要甜(与介词短语those比较)
The apples in this basket are sweeter than those on the table.

他的车子比他的朋友的好
His car better than his friend's.
  1. 本身最高级意味的形容词：
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perfect: 完美的
sublime: 卓越的
noble: 高贵的
extreme: 极度的
superb: 极好的
excellent: 特优的
  1. 变得愈来愈…
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 be getting more and more + adj.
=be getting 比较级adj+and+比较级adj.
=be getting increasingly+adj.

那儿的生活越来越不容易
Life over there are getting more and more difficult.
                            increasingly difficult.

那个男孩越来越胖了
The boy is getting fatter and fatter.
                   increasingly fat.
  1. 修饰比较级的副词
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置于被修饰的副词或形容词前：far/much/a lot/a great deal/still/even，其中far/much/a lot最常用

这问题比那个要难多了/甚至更难
This question is (far/much/a lot) more fifficult than than one.

他比他们之中任何一个都用功得多
He studies much harder than anyone of them.

far/much/a lot可修饰副词too：
他太老了，无法做这差事
He is far/much/a lot too old to do the work.
  1. 最高级的副词
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有两个：most及least

a. 形容词

她是我见过最美的女孩
She is the most beautiful girl that I've never seen.

三个女孩中，她最不好看
Of the three girls, she is the least beautiful.

b. 副词

他待人最有礼貌
He treats people most politely.

c. 动词

我最需要你
I need you most.
  1. 最高级一定要是三者以上：
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a. Of/among the three/four... 在这三个/四个...之中

这五本书中，我最喜欢那本
Of five books, I like that one best.

他是所有学生中最好的一个
He is the best student of all.

of the two则使用比较级
这两个学生中，John比较好
Of the two students, John is the better.

这两本书中，我比较喜欢那本
Of the two books, I like that one better.

b. 最高级形容词+n+关系代词that(不可使用who/whom/which)+定语从句完成时：
在我所认识的人中，John是最有责任感的一位
John is the most responsible man (that) I've ever known.

在我教过的学生中，他是最好的一位
He is the best students that I've ever taught.
  1. the与最高级的关系：
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最高级副词修饰动词或副词时，不一定要加the，但最高级形容词修饰名词时，则须加the:

a. 副词
这四个学生中，他待人最有礼
Of the four students, he treats people (the) most politely.

b. 动词
我所认识的人中，我最尊敬他
Of all the people I know, I respect him (the) most.
I respect him most that I've ever known.

c. 名词
他是所有学生当中最好的一个
He is the best student of all.
  1. most可作very解：
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加形容词修饰名词时，不必于most之前加the:
她真是个很美的女孩子
She is a most/very beautiful girl.
  1. by far可修饰最高级：
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by far及much修饰the+最高级副词或形容词：
她是镇上最美的女孩子
She is by far/much the most beautiful girl in town.

原级比较结构

  1. 造句方式：
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as...as...: 和...一样地...

a. 先造一个含有形容词或副词的句子：
He is prudent.
He runs fast.

b. 再于句中的形容词或副词之前置as一词as为副词，译成“一样地” ：
他一样地小心
He is as prudent.
He runs as fast.

c. 再设定比较对象，并在该比较对象之前置副词连接词as即告完成；此as译成
“和” ：
他和约翰一样小心
He is as prudent as John.
他跑得和约翰一样快
He runs as fast as John.
  1. as从句的变化
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a. be动词
他和约翰一样小心
He is as prudent as John (is)

b. 助动词
他唱得和约翰一样好
He can sing as well as John (can)

c. 一般动词
他跑得和约翰一样快
He runs as fast as John.
  1. as从句或than从句也可采倒装结构：
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他比我的好友约翰谨慎
He is as prudent is John, who is a good friend of mine.

他和我妹妹玛丽一样用功
He studies as hand as does Mary, who is my sister. 

他比我妹妹玛丽用功多了
He studies much hander than does Mary, who is my sister.
  1. “as…as…”用于肯定或否定句，而”so…as…”则只能用在否定句中
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肯定句：
He studies as hard as Mary.
他和栏杆一样瘦
He is as thin as a rail.

否定句：
He doesn't study as(so) hard as Mary.
He isn't as(so) polite as John.

其他有关as/than的重要用法

  1. “as…as…”可与单数可数名词连用：
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#将第一个as置于动词之后：
He is as handsome a boy as John.
I have as fancy a car as that one.

1). 类似此种只能与单数名词连用的结构还有：

so...that...:  如此...以致/所以...
too...to...    太...而不...
how...         多么地...

a. so...that...
他是个这么好的男孩子，所以我非常喜欢他
 He is so a good boy that I like him very much.
=He is such a good boy that I like him very much.

b. too...to...
他年纪太大，没法做此事
He is too old to do it.

c. how...
他是个伟大的人物
 What a great man he is!
=How great man he is!

2) what与such之后可修饰单复数或不可数名词：

他真是个伟大的人物
What a greate man he is!
这真是好听的音乐(不可数)
What beautiful music it is!
他们真是好孩子(复数)
What good boys they are!
He is such a good boy that I like him.
They are such good boys that I like them.

这类只能与单数可数名词连用的结构记忆法：
从前有个书呆子(so...that...)，他有两个朋友，一个叫阿西(as...as...),
一个叫土土(too...to...)，三人相聚时，最爱念一个字：好(how...)
  1. as…as one can 尽可能地…
    =as…as possible
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a. 造句方法：
1) 先造一个含有形容词或副词的句子：
他一定要用功
You must study hard.
他保持沉默
He remained quiet.

2). 在hard或quiet之前置入第一个as(用副词，中文译为"一样地")：
You must study as hard.
He remained as quite.

3). 句尾添加as one(you/he...) can或possible:
你要尽可能地用功
You must study as hard as you can.
                       as possible.
He remained as quiet as he could.
                     as possible.
  1. as…as any 与任何人一样…
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他和任何其他人一样快乐
He is as happy a man as any.
  1. as…as ever 与往常一样…
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虽然我和他分开已久，但他还是和以前一样年轻
Though it has been a long time since I parted for him, he is as young as ever.

  1. as…as ever lived 古今最…之一
    =one of the+最高级…that ever lived

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    他是古今最伟大的英雄之一
     He is as great a heo as ever lived.
    =He is one of the greatest heroes that ever lived.

  2. 两个形容词的相互比较：

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more...that结构中两个形容词比较，一律用原级：
 He is more good than bad.
=He is not so bad as good.
=He is good rather than bad.
  1. 倍数词造句法：
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a. 本结构一共有四种：
倍数词+as⋯as⋯                           是⋯的几倍
morethan+倍数词+as⋯as⋯                 是⋯的几倍还不止
倍数词+the（或所有格）+名词是⋯ ⋯的几倍
more than+倍数词+the（或所有格）+名词    是...的几倍还不止

他的体重是我的三倍
 He is three times as heavy as I.
=He is three times my weight.
他的体重是我的三倍还不止
 He is more than three times as heavy as I.
=He is more than three times my weight.

b. 倍数词+as...as...    是...的几倍
含有as...as...的短语，句中必须要用形容词或副词：
他用功的程度是的3倍
He studies hard.
He studies as hard as I.
将倍数词置于as...as...之前
He studies three times as hard as I.

I am three times as old as he.

c. more than+倍数词+as...as...    是...的几倍还不止
  =倍数词+more...than...
他的用功是我的三倍还不止
He studies hard.
He studies as hard as I.
He studies three times as hard as I.
He studies more than three times as hard as I.
He studies three times harer than I.

 He is more than three times as diligent as I.
=he is three times more diligent than I.

 I am more than three times as old as he.
=I am three times more older than he. 

d. 倍数词+the(that/his/those/these/所有格)+名词    是...的几倍
   本结构必须要与名词连用
他是钱是我的两倍
1. 先译"他有我的钱"
He has my money.
2. 再将倍数置于所有格之前
He has twice my money.

3. more than+倍数词+the(或所有格)+名词    是...的几倍还不止
他的钱是我的两位还不止
1. He has my money.
2. He has twice my money.
3. He has more than twice my money.

f. 下列词类均视为倍数词：
one-third      三分之一
two-thirds     三分之二
three-fourths  四分之三

我的年龄只有你的一半
I am half as old as you.

我的用功程度仅及他的三分之一
I study only one-third as hard as he.

她的体重有我的两倍
She is twice my weight.

g. 特殊结构：
1. twice as⋯as⋯（常用）是⋯ ⋯的两倍
他的年纪是我的两倍
He is twice as old as I.

2. one and a half times as⋯as...   是⋯的一倍半
He 15 eight years old, and I am one and a half times as old as he·

3. as many as+数词+复数名词    多达⋯
这次空难中多达100人丧生
As many as one hundred people were killed in the air crash.
桌上的苹果有5个之多
There are as many as five apples on the table.
as much as+金钱名词: 他身上有50块钱之多
He has as much as fifty dollars with him.

as long  as+数词十名词    长达...
as wide  as+数词十名词    宽达...
as high  as+数词十名词    高达...
as early as+数词+名词    早在...
as late  as+数词+名词    迟至...

我学英文已有25年之久
I've been learning English as long as 25 years.
这条河宽达100米
This river is as wide as 100 meters.
我早在星期五就把信寄了
I mailed the letter as early as Friday.
他迟至清晨两点才回家
he came home as late as two in the morning.
  1. the+比较级…, the+比较级… 愈…就愈…
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使用本句型的先决条件为：句中要有副词或形容词：
a. 造句法：
你愈用功，你就愈能成为一个好学生
1. 加入The..., the...:
   The____..., the____...
2. 将中文句子中的“愈”去掉，变成：
   你用功，你就能成为一个好学生：
   You study hard, you'll become a good student.(x)
3. 将第二步中的英文句子置于第一步中的空格后：
   The____you study hard, the____you'll become a good student.
4. 将第三步中的形容词或副词移位到空格中，并变成比较级。若形容词之后有名词，该名词也要移位，
   而原有的a或an则删除：
   The harder you study, the better student you'll become.

你愈谨慎，你犯的错就愈少
1. The___..., the___...
2. You are careful, you'll make few mistakes.(x)
3. The___you are careful, the___you'll make few mistakes.
4. The more careful you are, the fewer mistakes you'll make.

b. 使用“愈...就愈...”的结构时，要注意两点：
1. 若句中没有副词或形容词时，则在The或the之后置副词more或less:
你愈爱我，我就对你愈好
The___you love me, the___I'll be nice to you.
The more you love me, the nicer I'll be to you.

d. 比较级+and+比较级    愈来愈...
It is getting warmer and warmer every year.
The girl became more and more beautiful.

代词

it作形式主语

  1. 代替不定式
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 It is good to study.
=To study is good.
  1. 代替that名词性从句
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他想读书，这是件好事
It's good that he wants to study.
That he wants to study is good.
  1. 代替动名词
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整天看小说是没用的
 It's no use/good reading novels all day long.
=It's of no use to read novels all day long.
=There is no use (in) reading novels all day long.

it作形式宾语

  1. 但动词虽加宾语，意思却不完整，而需要补充说明，谓不完全及物动词，其补充语一定是名词或形容词（包括分词变成的形容词）：
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我认为他人很好
I consider him good.
I consider him a good man.
I consider her beautiful.
  1. 不定式或that从句有名词的功能，可作主语，亦可作宾语:
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I think that he is good.

To sutdy abroad has always been my dream.
I want to go.
That he doesn't study is true.

但两者却不能直接作不完全及物动词之宾语，必须用it代替:
I think that he is good true.(x)
I think it true that he is good.

I think to get up early good.(x)
I think it good to get up early.

以下是常用的不完全及物动词：
think    认为⋯ ⋯是⋯ ⋯
consider 认为⋯ ⋯是⋯ ⋯
deem     认为⋯ ⋯是⋯ ⋯
believe  相信⋯ ⋯是⋯ ⋯
find     发现⋯ ⋯是⋯ ⋯

I consider it necessary to excercise on a daily basis.
  1. it亦可用以强调介词短语或状语从句：
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我是在1974年开始学英文的
It was in 1974 that I began to study English.

他是因为懒惰的关系而失败的
It was because he was lazy that he failed.
  1. 数量代词的用法：
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most of the(或my/your...)+不可数名词+单数动词
all                       复数名词+复数动词
some
half
part
the rest
one-third
two-thirds
none

大部分的钱都被窃了(money前不得加the)
Most of money was stolen.
部分学生在这儿
Some of the students are here.
所有学生都在这儿
All of the students are here.
他所有的演播都在这儿
All of his students are here.
有三分之一的学生通过了测验
One third of the students have passed the test.
70％的水被污染了
Seventy percent of the water is contaminated.
70％的学生没考及格
Seventy percent of the students have failed the test.
  1. almost/most/all的关系：
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almost  为副词表“几乎”, 不能作代词。
most    为形容词（大多数的，最多的）、副词（最），亦可作代词，表“大多数”
all     为形容词（所有的），亦可作代词（全部），可用almost修饰。

大多数学生在这儿(代词)
Most of the students are here.
所有的学生都在这儿(代词)
All of the students are here.
几乎所有的学生都在这儿(adv)
Almost all of the students are here.
大多数学生都喜欢音乐(adj)
Most students love music.
所有学生都喜欢音乐(adj)
All students love music.
  1. 人称代词

Grammar_it.png
Grammar_it2.png

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她自杀了
She killed herself.
她的书和我的一样有趣
her books are as interesting as mine.
  1. 反身代词的强势用法
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他亲自做这件事
He himself did it.
He did it himself.
  1. a friend of mine/this book of hers的用法

Grammar_it3.png

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他是我的一位朋友
He is a friend of mine.
你的这位朋友是个好人
This friend of yours is good.

上述结构使用到“ of十所有格代词”时，均可与不定冠词（a 、 an）、指示代词( this 、 that 、 these 、 those 、which）或数词（some 、 a few 、 ten 、 many 、most ⋯）连用，但不可与定冠词the连用，换言之，无下列用法：
他是我最好的朋友
He is the best of mine.(x)
He is my best friend.
他是我最好的朋友其中一个
He is one of my best friends.
  1. those who/those whom
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叫那些迟到的人来见我
Tell those who are late to come and see me.
虚无主义者对伊凡的画感兴趣
Evan's paintings are interesting to those who believe in nihilism.
  1. each other/one another
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a. each other    两者彼此
   one another   三者或三者以上彼此

这两位同学彼此都很喜欢对方
The two students like each other.
这五位同学彼此互相讨厌
The five student hate on another.

b. one after the other    两者相继地
   one after another      三者或三者以上相继地

他相继地举起左右手
He raised his hands one after the other.
所有学生一个接一个地进来
All the students came in one after another.
  1. either/neither/both/all/any/none作代词的用法
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either（两者中任一）    any（三者或以上任一）
neither（两者皆不）     none（三者或以上皆不）
both（两者皆）          all（三者或以上皆）

你上咖啡也好，茶也好，我都不在乎随便哪样都行
I don't care whether you serve coffee or tea; either will do.
这四把椅子没有一把是我喜欢的
I don't like any of the four chairs.
这两本书都不好
Neither of the two books is good.
三个学生中没有一个是用功的
None of the three students is(或are) diligent.
那两个学生都懒惰
Both of the two students are lazy.
这五个苹果都烂掉了
All of the five apples are rotten.
  1. one…the other… 一个…另一个…(限定的两者)
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他有两个儿子。一个是老师, 另一个则是军人。
He have two sons. One is a teacher, and the other is a soldier.
  1. one…another…the other… 一个…一个…另一个…(限定的三者)
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他有三个儿子。一个是老师，一个是军人，另一个则是律师
He have three sons. One is a teacher, another is a soldier, and the other is a lawyer.
  1. one…another… 一个…另一个…(非限定的两者)
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嗜好因人而异。某甲可能喜欢游泳，某乙则可能喜欢远足
Hobbies vary with people. One may enjoy swimming, while another may love hiking.
  1. some…others… 一些…另一些…(非限定的两群)
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嗜好因人而异。有些人可能喜欢游泳，有些人则可能喜欢远足
Hobbies vary with people. Some may enjoy swimming, while others may love hiking.
  1. some…others…still others… 一些…一些…另一些…
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嗜好因人而异。有些人可能喜欢游泳，有些人可能喜欢蹦极，也有些人则喜欢远足
Hobbies vary with people. Some may enjoy swimming, others may be fond of bungee jumping, and still others may love hiking.
  1. 明确数词…the others/the rest… 若干…其他/其余
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我班上只有两个学生通过考试，其余全不及格
Only two students in my class passed the test. The others failed.

复合形容词

  1. 数词+名词
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这个计划会持续一年，但那个计划则会持续五年
This program will last one year, but that program will last five years.
这项五年计划执行起来得超过五年(five一year中的名词为单数)
This five一year plan may take more than five years to carry out.
  1. 数词+名词+形容词
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约翰五岁了
John is five years old.
约翰是五岁的男孩
John is a five一year一old boy.
  1. 名词+现在分词
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玛丽是个喜欢伤男孩子心的女孩
Mary is a girl who likes to break boys' hearts.
玛丽是个会伤人心的女孩
Mary is a heart一breaking girl.
  1. 副词+现在分词
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这块低洼地区淹水了
The area which lay low was flooded.
这块低洼地区淹水了
The low一lying area was flooded.
  1. 名词+过去分词
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我为那个心碎的男孩子感到难过
I feel sorry for the boy whose heart is broken.
我为那个心碎的男孩感到难过
I feel sorry for the heart一broken boy.
  1. 形容词+名词变成的过去分词
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那个大眼睛的女孩子是谁
Who is that big一eyed girl?
  1. well/ill+过去分词
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well一behaved    很守规矩的
well一bred       很有教养的
well一built      体格很棒的
well一chosen     慎选的
well一done       表现很棒的；（牛排）全熟的
well一dressed    穿着体面的
well一known      很出名的
well一mannered   彬彬有礼的
well一read       书读得很多的，饱读诗书的
well一traveled   去过很多地方的，老马识途的
ill一bred        没有教养的
111一considered  考虑不周的
111一fated       命运不好的，不幸的
ill一gotten      用不正当手段获得的
illjudged       判断不当的
111一mannered    态度不好的
111一natured     心地不好的，本性坏的
good一natured    本性善良的（非well一attired )

我喜欢这孩子，因为他很乖
I like the child because he is well一behaved.
这位命苦的年轻人最后自杀了
The ill一fated young man committed suicide in the long run.

介词用法

at

  1. at+建筑物
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我们将在车站碰面
We will meet at the station.

a．城市、国家等则与介词in连用
b．若强调“在某建筑物内”则介词仍须使用in
  1. at+人对某人（尤指近距离常与yell/point/shout/laugh等动词连用。此处at表“朝向” )
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yell/shout at 人    对某人吼叫／咆哮
laugh at 人         嘲笑某人
point at 人         指着某人

那个男人生气时总是对他的太太咆哮
The man always shouts at his wife when he is angry.
强尼，不要嘲笑那个可怜的乞丐
Don't laugh at the poor beggar, Johnny.
老师指着他说；“我看到你考试时作弊。 ”
The teacher pointed at him and said, "I saw you cheat on the test."

point to...    指着远处的...
他指着山顶上的房子说：“那是我的家。 ”
He pointed to the house on the hilltop and said, "It's my house."
  1. at与下列名词连用表“从事某活动” 
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be atwork      上班，做事
be at church   做礼拜
be at school   上学
be at rest     休息

莎琳娜正在工作，不要打扰她
Selena is at work now; don't bother her.
你现在可以去问经理；他正在大厅里休息
You can go ask the manager now; he is at rest in the lobby.
  1. at亦与度数／程度／价格／年龄等与数词有关的名词连用
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at the price/cost/expense of+数词    以⋯ ⋯的价格
at the age of+年龄                   在⋯ ⋯的岁数时
at the speed of+速度                 以⋯ ⋯的速度

我以450美元的价格买了这台CD随身听
I bought the portable CD player at the price of $450
珊蒂在32岁时生了第一个小孩
Sandy had her first child at the age of 32.
她当时以时速28英里的速度开车
She drove at the speed of 28 miles an hour.

by

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1. 表“在⋯ ⋯之旁＂相当于beslde:
by the window    在窗边
by the door      在门边
by my side       在我旁边

他走过来站在我旁边
He came over and stood by my side.

2. 表“凭借”:
   judge A by B    借由B来评鉴、判断A
   tell A by B     借由B知道是A

不要以貌取人
Don't judge a person by his or her looks.

3. by与下列表“抓”有关的动词连用，仍表’ ‘借由”:
catch/grab/grasp/hold/seize/take+人+by the+身体部位或衣物的部分    抓住某人的⋯
那个男人抓住他的衣领叫他闭嘴
The man seized him by the collar and told him to shut up.
注意：by后面不能接所有格，只能接the.
我抓住了他的手
I caught him by the hand.

4. by亦表“经过”之意:
pass by my house     经过我家
drive by my house    开车经过我家
walk by my house     走路经过我家

我经过家门而没有走进去
I passed by my house and didn't walk in.

5. by亦表“差距”之意尤用于下列用法：
be older than+人+by two years       比某人大两岁
be younger than+人+ by two years    比某人小两岁

她比我大五岁
She is older than I by five years.
我们以两分之差赢了另一队
We beat the  other team by two points.

6. by亦表“按照”
我的表现在是5点20
It is five twenty by my watch.

7. by亦表”取道”
come back by way of Hong Kong   取道香港回来
=come back via Hong Kong

我们取道香港前往北京
We went to Beijing by way of Hong Kong.

8. by亦表"乘坐（交通工具）":
come back by bus/train/ship/air/bicycle/motorcycle
乘公车／火车／船／飞机／（骑）自行车／（骑）摩托车回来
他每天乘出租车上班
He goes to work by taxi every day.

9. by用于被动语态表“被...”
他被车撞死了
he was killed by a car.

10. by亦可用于主动语态
by+动名词    用/借由...
他借由努力而成功
He succeeded by working hard.
那个老太太以卖水果为生
The old woman makes a living by selling fruit.

11. by+时间最迟不超过某时间
Come back by ten
=Come back no later than ten.
十点以前要回来

for

  1. 与表“动身”之意的动词连用，表“前往（某地）”
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set out/set off/depart for+地点    动身前往某地
head for/to+地点                   朝某地前进
leave A地 for B地                   离开A地前往B地

她昨晚动身前往美国
She set out for American last night.
看完电影后我们就前往酒吧
We headed to the pub after the movie.
他昨天离开澳大利亚前往新西兰
He leave Australia for New Zealand yesterday.
  1. 表“为⋯的目的”:
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do it for you       为了你做这件事
for the sake of..． 为了⋯的缘故

不要责怪他。毕竟，他这件事是为你做的
Don't blame on him. After all, he did it for you.
他做每件事都是为了钱
He doe everything for the sake of money.
  1. 表”赞成”
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 be for+事    赞成某事
=be in favor of+事
你赞成他的想法吗？
 Are you for his idea?
=Are you in favor of his idea?
  1. 表“为了⋯的原因”：
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reward+人+for+事    因为某事而奖励某人
村民报答他救了那位小女孩
The villagers rewarded him for saving the girl.
  1. 表”当作”：
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use A for B    把A当作B使用
take A for B   （误）把A当作B
那些原住民以一些昆虫为食
The natives use insects for food.
我把约翰误当作女孩子，因为他留长发
I took John for a girl because he wears long hair.
  1. 表”找寻”：
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be hard pressed for time    时间不够用（而须寻找时间）
look for...    寻找...

那位女士扮演多重角色。她的时间总是不够用
The lady wears many hats. She is always hard pressed for time.
  1. 表”持续（一段时间）”:
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我已经学了三年的日文了
I have been learning Japanese for three years.
我好长一段时间没见到约翰了
I haven't seen John for a long time.
                    for ages.
  1. for亦用于下列句型中
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It is+非表人之本性或气质的形容词+for sb to+原形动词⋯
对某人来说（做）⋯ ⋯是⋯ ⋯的。

学英文对你来说是有必要的
It is necessary for you to study English.
你能帮我真是太好了
It is very kind for you to help me.
  1. 表“开往（某地点）帕勺交通工具）”：
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往芝加哥的班机将在2点30分起飞
The flight for Chicago will depart at 2:30.
  1. 表“以…价格” :
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这本书我10元就买到了
I bought this book for only $10.

from

  1. 表”从…”:
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from A to B          从A到B
from what he said    从他所说的话
go from bad to worse 每况愈下

从上海飞往香港要花一个多小时
It takes more than an hour to fly from Shanghai to Hong Kong.
从他的话中我无法了解他的意思
I couldn't figure out what he meant from his words. 
从那次事件后，他们的生意就每况愈下
Their business has gone from bad to worse since that incident.

be made from...    由...做的（成品不能还原成原料）
这酒是葡萄酿造的
This wine is made from grapes.
be made of...      由...做的（制成的成品其原料本质不变）
这张桌子是木头打造的
This table is made of wood.
  1. from亦可与表“禁止、阻止、保护”有关的动词连用此处from表“免于” 
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ban/prohibit/restrict/restrain sb from+动名词    禁止某人（做）
prevent/stop/keep sb from+动名词                 阻止某人（做）⋯
protect sb from+动名词                           保护某人免于⋯

他被禁止在大厅里抽烟
He was prohibited from smoking in the lobby.

那位女士及时赶来阻止了她的儿子自杀
The lady came in time to prevent her son from killing himself.

王子保护公主免受盗匪攻击
The prince protected the princess from being attacked by the bandit.

我们老师禁止我们带漫画书到学校
Our teacher forbid us to bring comic books to school.

in

  1. 表“穿/戴着…”
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be dressed in⋯    身穿/戴着⋯
wear...

那个穿着红衣服的女孩是谁?
Who is the girl that is dressed in red?
Who is the girl that is wearing a red dress?

她出门前穿上她的外套
She put on her coat before going out.
  1. “in＋一段时间”表“在一段时间之后”，相当于“一段时间+later”，亦可表“在一段时间之内”此时in相当于within:
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我两分钟后就会回来
I'll be back in two minutes.
I'll be back two minutes later.
我想我在两分钟内就可以完成这份工作
I think I can finish the work within 2 minutes.
  1. 表“以⋯ ⋯（颜料、工具等）”
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write the letter in ink/pencil    用墨水/铅笔写信
write the word in chalk            用粉笔写字

钢笔写字
write the words in ink
=Write the words with a pen
  1. 表“按…次序”:
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in alphabetical order    按字母顺序
keep...in order          将⋯整理好/整齐

他把文件按照字母顺序放人档案夹中
He put ine papers in the folders in alphabetical order.
客人来之前把你的房间整理好
Keep your room in order before the guests come.
  1. 表“以⋯语言/声音”:
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write in Chinese      用中文写
speak in a low voice  低声说话
talk in a bitter tone 以尖刻的语调说话

这老外会写中文，真令人惊讶
It's surprising that the foreigner can write in Chinese.
凯特正低声在和她的朋友说话
Ketty is speaking to her friend in a low vice.
我母亲凝视着提姆，并以尖刻的语调说话
My monther stared at Tom and talked in a bitter tone.
那个男子说话带有浓重的日本口音
The man spoke with a heavy Japanese accent.

on

  1. 与表“距离”的名词连用：
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go on a trip/journey    去旅行
go on an expedition    去探险／远征
go on an excursion    （尤指团体）去远足

我先生喜欢在每年的这个时候去日本旅行
My husband likes to go on a trip to Japan at this time of the year.
  1. 与表“差遣”的名词连用:
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be on an errand    跑腿，办差事
be on a mission    身负使命

他出去办点差事
He is on an errand.
那些军人被派往前线作战
The soldiers were sent to  the front on a mission.
  1. 与表“约会”的名词连用
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be on a date with sb    跟某人约会

你昨晚和那边那位男士约会吗?
Were you on a date with the man over there last night?
  1. 与表“特别饮食”的名词连用：
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be on a diet    节食

辛蒂不会吃这些蛋糕的。她正在节食
Cindy won't eat these cakes. She is on a diet.
  1. 与表“平地”或“大陆”的名词连用：
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on campus          在校园内
on the mainland    在大陆
on the farm/ranch  在农场/牧场上

他们在牧场上饲养牛羊
They rear cattle and sheep on the ranch.

off campus    在校外
学生即使在校外也应该守规矩
The students should behave themselves even off campus.
  1. 与表“线状／线条”意味的名词连用：
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live on that street          住在那条街上
walk on the beach            在海滩散步（海滩为线状）
on the coast                 在海岸上
on the brim/edge/verge of... 在⋯的边缘
on the frontier              在边境

我喜欢和男友在海滩散步
I like to walk on the beach with my boyfriend.
  1. 表“借由”之意:
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on foot    步行（非by foot)

你每天早上都是走路上学吗？
Do you go to school on foot every morning?
  1. 表“凭借、遵照”：
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act on one's advice    按照某人的建议行事
act on one's order     遵照某人的命令行事

我会按照你的建议行事，试着去达成目标
I'll act on your advice and try to achieve the goal.
不要问太多。只要遵照我的命令行事就对了
Don't ask too much. Just act on my order.
  1. 与表有关“无线电器材”之名词连用：
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on/over the telephone    在打电话
on television            在电视屏幕上（非on the television)
on/over the radlo        在广播中

史蒂芬正在通电话
Steven is talking on the telephone.
  1. 与表“赞美、恭贺”的名词连用，表“为了/因为…”:
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congratulate sb on（代）名词／动名词    因⋯而恭贺某人

他的家人恭喜他通过了考试
His family congratulated him on passing the exam.
  1. 与“日子”连用：
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on Sunday         在星期天
on December 11    在12月11日

爱弥尔星期天都上教堂
Emile goes to church on Sundays.

in the moming/aftemoon/evening    在早上/下午/傍晚
at ninght                         在晚上
但moming/afternoon/evening如与日子连用时，介词用on
on the aftemoon of Auguest 16     在8月16日下午
on Mondy moming                   在星期一早上
on Saturday night                 在星期六晚上
  1. On的其他重要用法：
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on call    随时待命
on duty    值班/上班时间中

消防队员随时为紧急情况待命
The firefighters are on call for emergenies.
警卫的值班时间是从早上7点到晚上9点
The guard is on duty from 7:00 a.m. to 9:00 p.m.

to

  1. 通常表“到达、往”之意：
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go the station     到车站去
be moved to tears  感动得落泪
up to+数词         多达（若干数词）

他被《泰坦尼克号》这部电影感动得落泪
He was moved to tears by the move Titanic.
他每个月赚将近5万美元
He makes up to $50,000 per month.
  1. 与“人”连用表“对某人而言”：
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be everything to sb    是某人的一切

她的子女是她的一切
Her children is everything to her.
  1. 下列名词连用，形成固定用法，表“针对”之意：
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the key to success             成功之钥
（非the key of success)
the answer to the question     问题的答案
（非the answer ofthe question)
the solution to the problem    解决问题之道
（非the solution of the problem)

成功之钥就是勤劳
The key to success is diligence.
这个问题的答案没人知道
The answer to this question is unknown.
  1. to亦与情绪名词连用，形成“To one‘s＋情绪名词⋯” 令某人的是⋯
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To one's surise,...          令某人惊讶的是...
To one's joy,...             令某人高兴的是...
To one's satisfaction,...    令某人满意的是...
To one's dismay,...          令某人沮丧的是...
To one's astoinshment,...    令某人惊奇的是...

令我惊讶的是，他什么也没说就离开了
To my surpise, he left without saying anything.
令我们高兴的是，他通过了入学考试，进人一所好大学就读
To our joy, he passed entrance exam and enterd a good university.

表“就某人所知”亦与介词to连用:
就我所知，这个月初约翰已经移居香港了
To my understanding/knowledge, John moved to Hong Kong early this month.
  1. 表“酉己合（音乐、曲调、节拍等）”
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dance to the music             随着音乐跳舞
＊不可说dance with the music    抱着音乐一起跳舞扭(x)
dance to the melody            随着旋律跳舞

老师放音乐后,大家便开始随着音乐起舞
The teacher had the music on and everyone started to dance to the music.

dance with sb    与某人跳舞
我想和你跳舞
I'd like to dance with you.
  1. “be upto＋事”表“从事某事”，通常指令人怀疑或不好的事，常用于问句：
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你在搞什么鬼
What are you up to?

lt's up to sb.   则表“由某人做决定”
由你决定吧
It's up to you.

with

  1. 表“使用（某物）”之意：
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cut it with a knife    用刀切它
do it with care        以谨慎的心做这件事

妈用刀子切马铃薯
My monther cut the potato with a knife.
她谨慎地做每一件事
She does everything with care.
  1. with亦可放句首，表“有⋯ ⋯；随着⋯ ⋯ ” 
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随着时间的流逝，他的年纪愈来愈大
With the passing of time, he's getting older.
他是个有大鼻子的人
He is a man with a big nose.
  1. with也可形成复台结构，通常为大动作附带小动作时，大动作以本动词表示，小动作则使用with复合结构，其结构为:
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当时他双臂交叉着坐在那里
He was sitting there with his arms folded.
上句中“坐”为主要动词，“双臂交叉”为附带动作，故后者使用“ with his anns folded”
当时他嘴里含着烟斗跟我说话
 He was talking to me with a pipe in his mouth.
=He was talking to me pipe in mouth. 
上句中“讲话”为主要动词，“嘴里含烟斗”为附带动作。
  1. With的其他常态用法：
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leave sth with sb          将某物留给某人
compare A with B           将A与B作比较
be popular with+一群人     受某一群人欢迎
be wrong with sb           某人出了差错

他的父母死后留给他一笔财富
His parents left a fortune with him after they died.
她有点不对劲
Something's wrong with her.
你怎么了
What's the matters with you?

about

  1. 表“有关”，相当于on/concerning/regarding:
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写一往篇有关空气污染的文章
 write an article about air pollution
=write an article on/concerning/regarding air pollution.
about多为口语用法，on则在文笔中使用

after

  1. 在“追逐”，通常与动词连用
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 be after 人    追逐/追捕某人
=run after 人
=chase (after) 人
警方仍在追缉这句小偷
The police are still after the thief.
                     running after the thief.
                     chasing the thief.
  1. 表“像、模仿”
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 take after    像...
=resemble...
=look like...
他长得像他爸爸
 He takes after his father.
=He resembles his father.
=He looks like his father.

toward

  1. 表“朝向”
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toward sb             朝某人的方向
toward the station    朝车站的方向
toward evening        快傍晚时

那个女孩带着灿烂的笑容跑向他
The gril ran toward him with a bright smile.

forward    往前(adv)
backward   往后、倒退(adv)
wayward    任性的、四面八方的(adj)

那个小孩子正摇摇晃晃地向前走
The little child is todding forward.
学生们被要求倒退着跑
The students were asked to run backward.
她是个任性的女孩，从不会为别人着想
She is a wayward girl, who never thinks about others.
  1. 表“对于”
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one's attitude toward/to...    某人对...的态度
你对于安乐死的看法如何？
What's your attitude toward mercy killing?

except

  1. 除了…之外
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除了他之外，所有的人都会去
 All except him will go.
=All save him will go.

Everybody can do it except Peter.

 He enjoys nothing except music.
=He enjoys nothing but music.
  1. except+ that从句(或for+名词)，表示“只可惜…”或“只不过是…”
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他人蛮不错，只不过是脾气不好
She is quite nice except that he is bad一tempered.
                         for his bad一tempered.

behind

  1. 在…之后
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房子后面有一棵树
There is a tree behind the house.
他正坐在我后面
He is sitting behind me.
  1. 落后
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behind schedule    比预定时间落后
他总是比预定时间落后完成工作
He always finished his work behind schedule.

on shedule        按预定时间
ahead of shedule  比预定时间提前
我们会尽量使每件事按预定时间进行
We'll try to keep everything running on schedule.
火车比预定时间提前到达
The train arrived ahead of shedule.

into

  1. 进入
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walk into the classroome  走进教室
run into the room         跑进房间

 run into+人    与某人巧遇
=bump into+人
  1. 转变成
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change/transform/turn A into B    将A转变成B
translate A into B     将A翻译成B

那个女巫把自己变成了一个小女孩
The witch changed herself into a little girl.
  1. 与be动词连用，形成”be into”的短语，表“热衷于…”
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他热衷于古典音乐
He is into classical music.

within

  1. 表“在…之内”，尤其指在某空间或某时间之内，相当于in
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 within the country
=in the country
 within an hour    在一小时之内
=in an hour
  1. 也可指范围，表“在…范围内”
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act within the law     在法律范围内行事
守法的公民应该依法行事
A law一abiding citizen should act within the law.

without

  1. 表“没有/无…”
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coffee without sugar    无糖的咖啡
without his help        没有他的帮助

Robert likes to drink coffee without sugar.
若没有他的帮助，我当时就无法成功
I couldn't have succeeded without his help.
  1. 与without有关的短语
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can do without...                  没有...也行
cannot do without...               没有...就不行
It goes without saying+that从句     不用说，...

我可以没有钱，但不能没有你的爱
I can do without money, but I cannot do without your love.
不用说，金钱不能买到每一样的东西
It goes without saying that money can't buy everything.

above

  1. 表“在…上方”
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Some birds are flying above(或over) the city.
Nanjing is located above Hangzhou on the map.
  1. 在下列短语中，above表“不屑”之意：
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be above＋动名词不屑／不愿（做）⋯
他不屑于诈骗别人
He is above cheating.

但be not above＋动名词愿意（做）⋯
他总是不耻下问
He is not above asking questions.

over

  1. 表“在…这上”，相当于above，但通常为悬空的状态:
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 be over the city
=be above the city
  1. 表“覆盖在⋯ ⋯之上”，为有接触物体的状态：
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put one's hands over one's faee    把某人的手放在某人的脸上
他把手放在她的脸上，告诉她不要担心
He puts his hands over her face, telling her not to worry.
  1. 表“（悬空）略过”，尤与动词iump连用：
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jump over the wall    跳过这座墙
那名窃贼跳过墙跑到街上去了
The thief jumped over the wall and ran down the street.
  1. 与地方名词连用，表“在某地方的另一头”:
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somewhere over there    在那儿的某处
我住在马路那头
I live over the road.
  1. 与数词连用表“超过”之意：
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 over+数词    超过某数词
=more than+数词
在这场车祸中有超过20个人受到重伤
 Over twenty people were seriously injured in the traffic accident.
=More than twenty were seriously injured in the traffic accident.
  1. 与表“驾驭”同义之名词或动词连用：
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have authority/control/power over...    有支配、指挥⋯ ⋯的权力
rule over...    统治...
总统有权指挥军队
The president has authority over the army.

这个国王已经统治人民十年了
The king has ruled over the people for ten years.
  1. 与咖啡、茶、三餐等连用，表“吃／喝⋯ ⋯了一段时间”，常与talk连用:
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我们谈了一杯茶的光景
We talked over a cup of tea.
他们聊了一顿晚饭的时间
They talked over dinner.
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a. 当描述某物的位置高于另一物时，above与over均可使用:
房子上方有一个阁楼
 There is an attic above the house.
=There is an attic over the house.

b. 但若表“从某物的一边移动到另一边”之动态动作，则只可用over:
那个小孩把球丢到墙外
The child threw the ball over the wall.

c. 另外above与over均可表“超越”，但above多与表示最小等级或一固定点之名词连用，over则与数词、时间、年龄、金钱等连用:
玉山的高度为海拔3952米
Mt. Jade is 3952 meters above seal level.
这个男孩身高超过同年龄其他小孩
The boy is above average height for his age.
这个男人30多岁了
The man is over thirty.
我花了500多元买这本书
I spent over five hundred dollars buying this book.

below

  1. 表“在（某物体）的下方” :
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write below the line    写在横线下方
这家百货公司下面有一家超市
There is a supermarket ablow the department store.
离桥下远处有个瀑布
There is a waterfall far below the bridge.
  1. 表“（数量等）少于…；（地位等）低于…”:
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他是个不到50岁的男子
He is a man below fifty.

beneath

  1. 表‘在（某空间）之正下方”:
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他们住在同一个屋檐下
The live beneath the same roof.
  1. 表“（身份、地位、智力等）低于⋯”，相当于below：
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法兰克的智力远不及丹尼尔
Frank is far beneath Daniel in intelligence.

under

  1. 表“在（某物体）的下面”:
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under the tree    在树下
under the bed     在床下

我在床底下找到我的乌龟
I found my turtle under the bed.
  1. 表“低于⋯；少于⋯”:
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under seven years old    7岁以下
在美国，21岁以下的人不可以买酒
People under 21 are not allowed to buy alcohol in America.
  1. 表“在⋯ ⋯支配/控制/影响下”：
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under the president             由总统统治
under the influence of drugs    在药物的影响下
这个国家现在由一位仁慈的皇后所统治
The country is now under a benevolent queen.
他在酒醉后吐露了实情
He told the truth under the influnnce of wine.
  1. 表“承受着（重担，压力等）；在⋯的情况/状态下”:
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under the heavy pressure of work    在沉重的工作压力下
under any cireumstances             在任何情况下
under construction                  施工中

在任何情况下都不要告诉别人这个秘密
Don't tell others the secret under any circumstances.
这座桥仍在施工中
The bridge is still under construction.
  1. 表“接受（考验、刑罚、手术等）”:
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under an eye operatinn    接受眼部手术
under penalty             受到处罚

他在那家医院接受眼部手术
He is under an eye operation at that hospital.
凡是违反规定的人就会受到处罚
People who disobey the regulations will be under penalty.
  1. 表“依照/根据（约定、法令等）”：
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根据美国宪法，人皆生而平等
All people are equal under the U.S. comstitution.
  1. 表“属于⋯项目” :
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小说属于文学类
Novels come under literature.

underneath

表“在…之下”，相当于under或beneath：

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 underneath the table    在桌子下
=under the table
=beneath the table

那只猫正在桌子底下睡觉
The cat is sleeping underneath the table.

against

  1. 表“对抗、抵制、反对” :
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be against a plan    反对一个计划
所有的成员都反对他提出的计划
All members were against the plan he brought forward.
  1. 表“顶着”：
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lean against the wall    靠墙站
小心那个靠墙站着的男子
Be careful of the man leaning against the wall.
  1. 表“以…为背景”:
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那个颜色在你皮肤的衬托下看起来不错
That color looks good against your skin.

along

  1. 表“沿着⋯”:
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walk along the river    沿着河走
沿着街走,你会看到很多书店
Walk along the stree and you'll see many bookstores.
  1. 表“顺畅”：
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get along with 人    某人相处得很好
辛西亚和她的同学相处得很好
Cindy gets along with her classmates.

before

表“在⋯ ⋯之前”，之后可接表空间或时间的名词：

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stand before the car    站在车前
before June             在6月之前

站在那辆黑色汽车前的男孩是我哥哥。
The boy standing before the black car is my brother.

beyond

表“超越”之意：

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be beautiful beyond description    美得难以形容
beyond one's imagination           超乎某人的想象
beyond one's expectation           出乎某人意料之外

那里的风景美得难以形容
The scenery there is beautiful beyond description.
他的聪明超乎我们的想像
His is so smart beyond our imagination.
珍妮出人意料地赢得了比赛
Jenny won the competition beyond everyone's expectation.

during

表“在（一段时间）期间” :

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during his stay here    在他待在这里期间
during the two months   在这两个月中

这两个月期间我都不会在这里
I won't be here during the two months.

through

  1. 表“经过”：
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walk through the crowd    穿过人群
那位歌手穿过人群离开了
The singer walked through the crowd and left.
  1. 表“取道／通过”:
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travel through Hong Kong    取道香港去旅游
我们取道香港去加拿大
We went to Canada through Hong Kong.
  1. 表“经由”：
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through one's help      经由某人的帮助
through the magazine    透过这本杂志

吉娜经由琳达的帮忙而获得这份工作
Gina got the job through Linda's help.
我是透过这本杂志认识汤姆的
I knew Tom through the magazine.
  1. 表“从（活动、场合等）开始到结束”:
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through the whole meeting    会议开始到结束

从会议开始到结束经理一句话都没说
The manager didn't say a word through the whole metting.
  1. 表“整段时间”:
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through the day    一整个白天
through thei nght  一整个晚上
他白天一整天都在街上游荡
He wandered around on the street through the day.

besides

表“除了…之外”，相当于“in addition to”：

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 besides +（代）名词/动名词    除了⋯之外
=in addition to +（代）名词/动名词

除了游泳，他也会溜冰
 Besides swimming, he can also roller一skate.
=In addition to swimming, ...

till/untill

表“直到…”:

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till与until可互通使用，不过until较till正式。
 stay here till ten    在这里待到十点
=stay here until ten

until另常与not连用，形成：
not...ntil...    直到...才...

他直到九点才来
 He didn't come until nine o'clock.
=Not until nine o'clock did he come.

till有时与from连用，形成：
 from...till    从⋯到⋯
=from...to...
那场电影我们从8点看到10点
 We watched the movie from eight till ten.
=We watched the movie from eight to ten.

since

表“自从…”，通常与完成时连用：

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since+时间名词/动名词    自从⋯
他从星期二就开始生病了
He has been ill since Tuesday.
自从大学毕业之后，她就一直在这家公司工作
Since graduating from college, she has been working in this company.

beside

  1. 表“在…之旁”．相当于by之意：
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 sit beside me    坐在我旁边
=sit by my side

凯伦，过来坐在我旁边
Come and site beside me, Karen.
  1. 表“与⋯相较”，相当于“compared with”或“in comparison with”：
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跟他相比，我便微不足道了
Beside him, I'm nothing.
Comparedd with him, I'm nothing.
In comparison with him, I'm nothing.

反意疑问句

  1. 反意疑问句的使用规则:
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陈述句为肯定时，接否定反意疑问句，陈述句为否定时，接肯定反意疑问句:

a. 陈述句有匕e动词，反意疑问句沿用be动词:

他人不错，是不是？
He is nice, isn't he?
我没病，是不是?
I wasn't sick, was I?

b. 陈述句有助动词，反意疑问句沿用助动词:

他会来，是不是?
He will come, won't he?
他们不能做这件事，是不是?
They can't do it, can they?
你做完了，是不是？
You have done it, haven't you?

c. 陈述句有一般动词，反意疑问句则使用do、does、did:

他来了，是不是？
He came, didn't he?

他起得很早，是不是？
He gets up early, doesn't he?

他没来，是不是？
He didn't come, did he?

d. 与祈使句使用时，反意疑问句一律用will you:

来这里，好不好?
Come here, will you?
别再抽烟，好不好?
Stop smoking, will you?

e. 与祈使句“ Let's...”（咱们⋯句型使用，反意疑问句一律用shall we:

咱们走吧，好不好?
Let's go, shall we?

咱们别做那件事，好不好?
Let's not do it, shall we?

但：请你让我们／他们／他／⋯ ⋯／约翰走吧，好不好？
let us/them/him/.../John go, will you?
  1. 句中有否定副词
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陈述句含有scarcely/hardly/rarely/no doubt/little/never/by no means等否定副词．陈述句视为否定句，须接肯定反问句:

他很少抽烟是不是？
He |scarcely ever| smokes, does he?
   |hardly ever  | 
   |rarely       |

毫无疑问他是个好孩子，是不是？
He is no doubt a good boy, is he?
  1. 句中有助动词短语:
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陈述句含有would rather、had better等助动词短语．反意疑问句中用其第一个词:

你宁愿去，是不是？
You would rather go? wouldn't you?

你最好做这事，是不是？
You had better do it? hadn't you?

他应当来，是不是？
He ought to come, shouldn't he?
  1. 反意疑问句须用人称代词:
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反意疑问句一定要用人称代词，但叙述句首为Thereis/are/was/were等时，则须用there

John is fine, isn't he?
This is not good, is it?
That is good, isn't it?
These are not good, are those?
Those are good, aren't they?
那里有个人，是不是？
There is a man there, isn't there?
  1. 陈述句中，主语若为第一人称单数I表示意见或观点时，不可能对自己反问，应以其后的that从句形成反问:
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我认为大卫人不错，是不是？
I think that David is nice, isn't he?

但主语若为I以外的主语，则反问句仍以主句为依据形成反问句:
我们认为这个新老师很好，是不是？
We think that the new teacher is nice, don't we?
  1. need作一般动词及助动词的反问句：
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need可作一般动词，也可作为助动词（仅限于否定句，须与not并用，无论第几人称need之后都不加s）:

他需要过去，是不是？
He needs to go,doesn't he?
他不需要过去，是不是？
He need not go, need he?